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THE  EXECUTIVE  AND  HIS  CONTROL 
OF  MEN 

A  STUDY  IN   PERSONAL  EFFICIENCY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NKW  YORK  •    BOSTON  •   CHICAGO  •   DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


E.  P.  Ripley 
Charles  Schwab 


THE  EXECUTIVE 

WooDROw  Wilson 

Theodore  Rooskvelt 

James  J.  Hill 


Wm.  Sunday 
E.  H.  Gary 


THE    EXECUTIVE    AND 
HIS  CONTROL  OF  MEN 

A    STUDY    IN    PERSONAL 
EFFICIENCY 


BY 


ENOCH    BURTON   GOWIN 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  COMMERCE,   SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE,  ACCOUNTS 

AND  FINANCE,  NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY;    MEMBER  STAFF 

ALEXANDER  HAMILTON   INSTITUTE 


Weto  gorft 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1915 

All  rights  reserved 


At 


^,00 


O 


-A 


Copyright,  1915, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  October,  19x5. 


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Norfoootr  iPress 

J.  8.  Gushing  Go.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Go. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


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JOSEPH   FRENCH   JOHNSON,  Dean 

MEMBER  OF  THE  6LITE 

HE  REPRESENTS  THE  EXECUTIVE 

AT  HIS  BEST 


5!Oft/in^ 


PREFACE 

The  very  practical  need  of  our  times  is  more  execu- 
tive ability.  In  proportion  to  the  demand  for  it,  such 
ability  has  always  been  scarce,  and  will  steadily  become 
more  so  under  the  rapid  growth  of  organized  enterprises 
of  every  sort.  Happily,  all  of  us  seek  power,  be  the 
direction  what  it  may ;  we  are  builded  for  upward  striv- 
ing. Since  it  is  only  partially  true  that  leaders  are  born, 
not  made,  this  power-seeking  tendency  in  our  nature  if 
cultivated  may  be  turned  into  executive  capacity.  Such  . 
result  is  the  chief  purpose  of  this  book. 

One  must  always  follow,  even  while  leading ;  we  are 
never  wholly  initiators.  Whom  shall  we  follow  ?  In- 
sincerity, shiftiness,  and  bluster  have  too  often  won  the 
ear  of  the  foolish  and  clouded  the  discerning  eye ;  but 
hurling  these  epithets  indiscriminately  at  every  fresh 
seeker  of  power  just  as  truly  wounds  the  man  of  vision 
and  exalts  the  thick-skinned  mercenary.  Since  this  study 
lays  bare  the  means  by  which  men  control  others,  one 
is  enabled  more  surely  to  realize  its  second  aim,  the 
wise  selection  of  leaders  and  rational  submission  to  their  ^ 
guidance.  The  perpetuity  of  organized  life  depends 
upon  the  rise  of  superior  men  into  positions  of  author-  -^ 
ity,  even  though  it  mean  oneself,  the  half-god,  must 
withdraw  when  the  god  appears. 

The  methods  described  are  those  which  executives 
use,  and  they  use  them  to  get  results.  Whether  the 
results  are  desirable  in  the  case  of  any  particular  execu- 
tive, the  reader  will  decide  for  himself  in  view  of  the 
principles  presented  in  Part  III.  If  these  methods  em- 
ployed to  control  men  at  times  seem  crude  and  harsh, 


viii  PREFACE 

we  must  remember  they  were  once  more  crude  and  more 
harsh.  It  is  too  often  that,  intent  on  the  ideal,  we  over- 
look the  very  real  progress  already  made,  usually  a  case 
of  overim patience  delaying  its  own  aim.  So  in  judging 
our  leaders  and  their  methods  we  should  adopt  the  rela- 
tive viewpoint,  exacting  of  them  no  absolute  standards, 
but  content  if  in  view  of  all  the  attendant  circumstances 
they  measure  up  as  men. 

Around  few  questions  have  more  controversy  and  spec- 
ulation been  aroused  than  the  one  here  treated.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  in  the  following  pages  much  con- 
crete material  is  being  presented,  since,  in  charting  an 
intricate  field  such  as  individual  ascendancy,  a  book  of 
deductions  is  to  be  feared.  As  for  the  product  in  toto  I 
venture  to  hope  that  through  its  influence  not  a  few 
people  will  work  together  with  increased  efficiency. 

In  prosecuting  these  studies,  I  have  become  much 
indebted  to  the  hundreds  of  American  executives 
furnishing  me  data  about  themselves;  to  numerous 
biographers  to  whom  credit  in  the  footnotes,  on  account 
of  frequent  quotations  and  their  brevity,  was  not  always 
given ;  and  also  to  my  old  friends.  Professor  Blakey  of 
the  University  of  Minnesota,  Professor  Barnes  of  the 
Tennessee  State  Normal  School,  and  Dr.  Miles  of  the 
Carnegie  Institution's  Nutrition  Laboratory,  and  my 
colleagues,  Dr.  Grimshaw  of  New  York  University  and 
Mr.  Wahlstad  of  the  Alexander  Hamilton  Institute,  for 
reading  the  manuscript  in  proof  sheets.  Especially  am 
I  indebted  to  my  wife,  faithful  heart,  efficient  worker ; 
and  to  my  old  teachers  who  inspired  as  they  taught. 

E.  B.  G. 

New  York  City, 
January  1,  1915. 


CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Chapter  I.    Executive  Ability 3-10 

Its  fundamental  character.  Importance  of  manage- 
ment. Increased  size  of  management  units.  Heteroge- 
neity as  a  test  of  skill.  Progressive  peoples  demand 
speed  in  operation.  Efficiency  as  basic  requirement. 
Why  organizations  develop.  Conformity  to  type;  the 
genius  and  the  fool.  Periods  of  stress  give  birth  to 
social  saviors.  Two  types  of  leaders;  executive  here 
studied.     Plan  of  treatment. 


PART   I.     INDIVIDUALITY 

Chapter  II.    The  Source  of  Personal  Power      .        .        11-21 
Removing  the  mystical  from  leadership.    Group  habits 
encase  men.    The  cramp  of  custom  in  relation  to  migrant 
or  innovator.      Surmounting   opposition.      Maintaining 
positive  attitudes.      Executive  meets  opposition  face  to 
face.     Energetic  character  of  great  men.     The  work  re-         / 
quirement.     The  unusual  as  opportunity;  the  overflow     / 
nature.    The  basic  requirement  of  leadership.    The  body 
viewed  as  a  chemical  machine. 

Chapter  III.  The  Physique  of  Executives  .  .  .  ^2-34 
Dorsal  and  ventral  cavities  of  body;  digestion.  Sta- 
tistical investigation  decided  upon.  Height  and  weight 
of  railroad  presidents,  governors,  university  presidents, 
reformers ;  other  Hsts  of  American  executives.  Leaders 
compared  with  average  men,  with  intellectuals  and  with 
men  of  less  success.  The  question  of  correlation  between 
leadership  and  physique.  Tables  showing  weights  and 
heights.     Graphs  of  frequency  distribution. 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGBS 

,  Chapter  IV.  The  Energizing  Level  ....  35-42 
Small-stature  heroes  dynamic  men.  Energy  level  fluc- 
tuates. The  arousing  of  indolence.  The  possibility  of 
retarding  fatigue.  Increasing  the  energizing  rate  through 
a  stimulating  environment.  Individual  wealth,  authority, 
and  social  approval  as  stimuli.  Other  elements  of  stim- 
ulus in  environment.  The  potential  genius  discovered. 
Progress  promoted,  with  safety  to  individual ;  high  levels 
consistently  maintained. 

>  Chapter  V.    The  Increase  of  Power      .       \        .        .        43-54 

Desire  to  act  is  inborn.  The  luminous  idea  has  the 
onward  impulse ;  its  effect  upon  Napoleon.  Character- 
istics of  this  idea :  clearness,  narrowness,  and  ability  to 
hold  interest;  how  power  may  be  derived  through  it. 
The  will  and  its  relation  to  the  idea.  Effect  of  the  set 
task,  faith  in  self,  impulsive  temperament,  and  intensity 
of  conviction.  Emotional  power  for  leaders  through 
constnictiveness  and  self-assertiveness,  occupying  the 
focal  point,  and  assuming  positive  attitudes.  The  atmos- 
phere of  power ;  work  without  ceasing. 

Chapter  VI.    Effective  Effort 55-72 

Crude  activity  directed  into  effectiveness.  Control 
of  energizing  rate;  power  as  needed.  Alertness;  its 
advantages  in  dispatch,  effective  expenditure,  and  oppor- 
tunism. Methods  through  which  originality  is  secured. 
The  maturing  of  thought.  Focalization  demanded  of 
executive  by  complexities  of  modern  life.  Initiative. 
Napoleon  as  an  example  of  effectiveness  in  effort 
Methods. 

Chapter  VII.    Organization 73-84 

Growth  of  organized  enterprise.  Its  advantages  in 
self-multiplication,  division  of  labor,  use  of  substitutes 
psychologically  cheap,  workable  policies,  stimulating  and 
stabilizing  effect  upon  executive ;  ideal  of  effective  ex- 
penditure. The  organizer's  type  of  mind.  Drawing  up 
a  systematic  plan ;  the  organization  chart.  Sorting  out 
typical  tasks,  man  analysis,  adjusting  man  and  task. 
Routine  tasks  and  the  use  of  machinery. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  VIII.  Systematic  Personal  Effort  .  .  85-94 
Administrative  burdens  crushing  unless  systematized. 
Classifying  the  material  to  be  dealt  with.  Working  at 
the  apex  of  the  business  pyramid.  Handling  correspond- 
ence. Making  use  of  mechanical  aids.  The  "buffer." 
Aiding  the  overloaded  memory.  Planning  the  day's 
work.  Sharing  burdens  with  subordinates.  Doing  versus 
getting  things  done.  Results  without  haste.  Conclusion 
of  Part  I.     Individuality. 

PART   II.     MOTIVATING  THE  GROUP  ¥r 

f\   Chapter  IX.     Stimulating  and  Controlling  Men       .      95-105 


Executive  as  stimulator.  Apathetic  or|;anizations  far 
too  common.  Outer  versus  inner  methods;  stimulation 
as  release.  Mankind  builded  for  action.  Effort  secured 
through  stimulating  instincts,  emotions,  intellect ;  whole 
mind  made  active.  Various  methods  available  for  this 
purpose.  Control ;  why  men  submit  to  others.  Collec- 
tive struggle  for  existence  breeds  social  nature,  with 
subordination.  Loyalty.  How  the  executive  as  he  stim- 
ulates secures  control. 

Chapter  X.    Personality 106-121  ^ 

Power  through  presence ;  as  Webster,  De  Lesseps,  '^ 
Napoleon.  Explanation  of  personality.  Physique,  emo- 
tion, intellect,  and  socialized  nature  as  elements  of  natu- 
ral prestige.  Why  personality  includes  both  positive 
and  negative  appeals.  The  ascendancy  based  upon  fear. 
Upon  positive  and  neg^ive  self-feeling.  Upon  inscruta- 
bility. Compoundings  of  emotions  in  admiration,  awe, 
reverence,  and  love;  the  ascendancy  thus  established. 
Practical  measures  for  extending  personality's  sway. 

-chapter  XI.    Imitation 122-134 

Tendency  to  do  as  others  do  more  than  an  instinct. 
In  general,  the  superior  is  imitated  by  the  inferior. 
Positions  of  authority  confer  imitation  prestige.  How 
wealth  dazzles.  The  aristocracy  of  achievement.  The 
idealizing  tendency  molds  potter's  clay  into  hero  stuff. 
Imitation  prestige  colors  all  our  thinking.  Making  use 
of  imitation  in  management 


xii  CONTENTS 

PAGBS 

Chapter  XII.    Suggestion 135-148 

Hypnotism  merely  dramatic  form  of  common  phe- 
nomena. Various  uses  of  suggestion.  Every  normal 
person  suggestible.  Suggestion  power;  prestige  of  the 
suggestor,  suggestibility  of  the  subject,  the  volume  and 
duration  of  the  suggestion.  Mobs,  crazes,  panics,  polit- 
ical "landsHdes."  How  suggestion  is  made  effective. 
Slantwise  and  direct  suggestion ;  Antony's  oration. 
Keeping  suggestion  positive.  Infectious  nature  of  sug- 
gestion, and  how  leaders  utilize  this. 

^  Chapter  XIII.    Emulation 149-160 

'  Breaking  records  through  contests.    Rivalry  both  lures 

and  spurs.  Utilizing  emulation  in  management.  The 
leader  as  pace  setter.  Enthuse  an  organization  by  mak- 
ing work  a  game.  Contests  with  the  "  enemy."  Beating 
records.  The  promotion  policy.  The  quick,  vigorous, 
and  continuous  action  of  emulation;  its  exalting  the 
strong  and  efficient.  Providing  incentive,  getting  all  to 
take  part,  and  ruling  out  wranglings. 

Chapter  XIV.    Art 161-173 

The  leader  as  actor  or  stage  manager.  Why  art  pos- 
sesses power.  The  aesthetic  demands  of  followers.  Art 
stimulates ;  its  use  for  this  purpose  in  war  and  work. 
The  effect  of  medals  and  banners.  Impressing  things 
dramatically.  Enlisting  the  imagination.  Art  permits 
high  lights  and  shadings.  Ceremonialism  as  a  means 
of  control.     Degeneracy  of  art ;  the  Ancient  Regime. 

Chapter  XV.    Illusion 174-187 

Deception  predated  civilization.  Its  influence  widely 
ramified  to-day.  Manipulating  attention  so  as  to  empha- 
size or  conceal.  The  befuddlement  of  reason;  Mo- 
hammed convenient  revelations,  the  prosperity  argument 
in  politics.  By  a  clever  distortion  of  values,  illusion 
passes  the  shoddy  as  genuine.  Credulity  natural  and 
error  follows  hard  upon  it.  Error  attractive ;  it  lives 
long  and  dies  hard.     How  illusion  approaches  sincerity. 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGES 

Chapter  XVI.    Discipline 188-202 

Moral  suasion  versus  the  iron  grip.  Authority  prestige. 
The  feeling  of  inferiority  in  followers ;  joyful  subordina- 
tion and  obedience.  Open  and  closed  resources.  How 
obedience  getters  close  resources.  Are  they  closed  to- 
day .''  Methods  of  making  discipline  effective.  Graded 
penalties.  The  approach  toward  self-government.  Good 
form  in  administering  punishment.  Why  its  certainty  is 
important. 

Chapter  XVII.     Rewards 203-215  *' 

Followers  possess  keen  bargaining  scent.  The  real 
content  of  rewards.  Wealth  does  not  satiate.  Motive 
behind  American  materialism.  Why  money  alone  can 
reward  certain  workers.  Fatigue  versus  results.  The 
grading  of  rewards.  The  antagonism  between  capital 
and  labor.  Day  rate.  Piece  rate.  Various  modifica- 
tions developed  under  scientific  management.  Mutual 
interest  plans.  Right  and  wrong  methods  of  bestowing 
rewards. 

Chapter  XVIII.     Idealism  .        ...        .        .    216-226  ^ 

The  motivating  power  of  ideals.  How  ideals  are 
builded;  their  relation  to  moral  virtues.  Utilitarian 
ideaHsm.  Idealism  in  war  spirit,  civic  pride,  theocratic 
groups,  socialism.  Emotionalized  standards.  Ideals  ad- 
justed for  effectiveness.  Executives  possessed  of  great 
expectation.  The  control  of  ideals  indirect  yet  none 
the  less  real.  Bringing  idealism  into  work.  Leader 
and  cause  unified. 

Chapter  XIX.    Instruction 227-244 

Valuable  knowledge  accumulated;  instruction  quickly 
transmits  it.  Executives  increasingly  called  upon  to 
teach.  Typical  methods  employed;  library,  lectures, 
bulletins  and  other  printed  matter,  trips,  self-improve- 
ment clubs,  and  schools.  All  knowledge  not  of  equal 
value.  Developing  standards.  Learner  must  retrace 
entire  route  but  at  accelerated  pace.  Weaving  details 
into  generalizations,  applying  generalizations  to  new 
concretes.     Results  attained. 


xiv  CONTENTS 


PART   III.     LIMITS   UPON   THE 
EXECUTIVE 

PAGES 

Chapter  XX.  Interest  and  Apathy  ....  245-258 
Subordinates  not  mere  puppets ;  at  all  times  they  limit 
the  executive.  Lack  of  attention  and  interest  negate 
most  appeals.  The  psychological  moment.  Periods  of 
waxing  and  waning  interest,  and  effect  upon  executives. 
Forces  making  new  adjustments  necessary.  What  nor- 
mally interests  people.  Reshaping  the  interests.  Com- 
pulsive ideas.  Simplicity,  removal  of  distractions,  and 
permitting  ebb  and  flow  as  means  for  maintaining  inter- 
est    Apathy  obverse  of  interest. 

Chapter  XXI.  The  Arousing  of  Opposition  .  .  259-274 
The  relation  between  apathy  and  opposition.  How 
individual  habits  and  gpup  customs  create  opposition  to 
innovations.  Pain  of  a  new  idea,  insecurity  and  danger 
in  innovation;  repression  of  innovator.  The  width  of 
variation.  The  career  of  Joseph  II  of  Austria ;  changes 
slow  to  realize.  Men  because  of  age  necessarily  grow 
out  of  harmony.  Statistical  investigation  of  reformers. 
John  Law's  career.     Coercive  power. 

Chapter  XXII.    Competitors 275-292 

Why  competition  -develops.  Attitudes  to  be  taken 
toward  competitors,  and  advantages  of  each.  The  mind's 
discordant  elements.  How  doubt  arises  and  decision  is 
secured.  Individual  resolution  merges  into  group  reso- 
lution. Prestige  versus  prestige,  prestige  versus  logic, 
logic  versus  logic.  When  to  use  prestige  and  when  to 
use  logic.     Securing  complete  motivation. 

Chapter  XXIII.  The  Executive's  Adaptability  .  .  293-300 
Competition  builds  up  centers  of  authority.  Such 
authority  always  subject  to  adaptabiUty.  Pure  democ- 
racy in  theory,  and  as  practiced.  Adaptation  an  all-per- 
vading principle  in  nature ;  authority  subject  to  it.  The 
variety  of  demands  upon  the  executive.  Surplus  favors 
adaptability.  The  gospel  of  relaxation.  The  perfecting 
of  adjustments  through  experience.  How  the  amateur 
becomes  expert     Old-fogyism.     Maintaining  balance. 


CONTENTS  XV 


Chapter  XXIV.  The  Final  Process:  Assimilation  .  301-311 
Restatement  of  thesis.  Variations  assimilated  become 
living  tissue.  Men  as  representatives  of  their  age.  In- 
creasing stimulus;  decreasing  opposition.  Making  new 
appear  old  or  old  appear  new.  Difference  between  world 
genius  and  average  executive.  Time  required  to  develop 
a  conquering  cause ;  early  trials  of  Mohammed  and  Jesus. 
Numbers  usually  win,  yet  not  always ;  the  rise  of  superi- 
ority. The  law  of  parsimony  demands  most  for  least; 
the  executive  a  means  toward  this  end. 

Appendix.    A  Statistical  Study  of  Executives  .        .    313-335 


THE  EXECUTIVE  AND  HIS 
CONTROL  OF  MEN 

A  STUDY  IN  PERSONAL  EFFICIENCY 

CHAPTER  I 
Executive  Ability 

"Such  earnest  natures  are  the  fiery  pith, 

The  compact  nucleus,  round  which  systems  grow ! 
Mass  after  mass  becomes  inspired  therewith, 
And  whirls  impregnate  with  the  central  glow." 

"The  executive's  chi^  business  is  to  organize,  deputize,  and 
supervise."  — E.  P.  Ripley. 

The  control  of  men  is  the  real  problem  of  every  or- 
ganization. Ninety-seven  per  cent  of  a  group  of  man- 
ufacturers interviewed  declare  it  their  most  serious 
difficulty ;  scientific  managers  agree  that  systematic  "sol- 
diering "  is  the  menace  of  industry ;  psychologists  are 
convinced  that  the  average  man,  without  injury,  could 
increase  his  output  by  a  half ;  observation  and  investi- 
gation reenforce  the  same  truth,  that  progress  waits 
upon  men  and  is  thus  dependent  upon  executive  ability. 

This  need  for  executive  ability  is  fundamental  in  all 
organized  effort.  Wolves  have  a  head  of  the  pack, 
mustangs  in  the  Southwest  group  themselves  under 
some  powerful  male,  sheep  follow  the  bellwether. 
Monkeys,  if  we  may  believe  travelers'  accounts,  on  their 


2  EXEeUtrC'E,  ABILITY 

raids  or  marches  have  general  and  staff.  The  reason  is 
evident.  Leaders  make  for  effective  group  action,  and 
whether  it  be  animal  herd,  robber  horde,  war  machine, 
or  department  store,  effective  group  action  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  means  survival. 

Opportunity  for  the  executive,  now  as  heretofore,  treads 
hard  upon  ability.  The  centraUzation  of  industry,  the 
growth  of  cities,  the  increased  facility  of  communica- 
tion, the  development  of  the  modem  state  itself,  have 
alike  socialized  men,  interlaced  their  interests,  and 
expanded  the  boundaries  of  their  collective  life.  The 
village  squire  merges  into  the  representative,  to  appear 
before  whose  numerous  constituents  even  requires  much 
mileage  and  leathern  lungs;  stagecoach  driver  and 
keeper  of  the  toll  road  have  become  railroad  ofl&cials; 
peddler  and  money  lender  are  transformed  into  depart- 
ment-store manager  and  corporation  director,  the  one 
numbering  his  employees  by  the  hundreds,  his  customers 
by  tens  of  thousands,  and  the  other  with  his  finger  on 
many  of  our  purses ;  handicraftsman,  swept  by  the  new 
currents  of  business,  becomes  captain  of  industry,  the 
term  manufacture  {manu,  by  hand,  Jactura,  a  making ; 
literally,  a  making  by  hand)  to-day  as  a  fossil  revealing 
the  surges  of  an  Industrial  Revolution.  In  short,  where- 
ever  one  may  choose  to  look,  tremendous  undertakings 
are  being  rolled  up  and  await  direction.  To  fail  here  is 
to  be  crushed  under  the  load  of  civilization. 

With  growth  in  size  has  come  increase  in  complexity. 
It  is  no  homogeneous  population  to  which  the  present- 
day  executive  appeals.  The  old  North-European  stock, 
men  from  Ireland,  Scandinavia,  and  Germany,  no  longer 
possesses  America  for  itself,  but  must  compete  and  mingle 
with  the  sons  of  Croatia  and  Serbia,  Bulgaria  and  Mace- 
donia. When  these  rub  shoulders  within  the  same  or- 
ganization, the  racial  difference  in  itself  is  liable  to  work 


COMPLEXITY  AND   SPEED  3 

demoralization  through  coteries  and  cliques.  Moreover, 
the  skilled  are  found  with  the  unskilled,  the  strong  with 
the  weak,  the  cultured  with  the  grossly  ignorant ;  and 
machinery,  pitting  mechanism  against  man  and  mechan- 
ism against  mechanism,  complicates  still  further  these 
himian  differences.  Utilities  are  being  produced,  trans- 
ferred, distributed,  and  consumed  imder  conditions 
continually  growing  more  intricate.  And  this  affects 
not  alone  factory  foreman  or  sales  manager,  but  preacher, 
editor,  politician,  agitator.  They  all  give-and-take 
within  the  social  mass.  For  their  diverse  ends  they 
have  builded  organizations  without  number,  more  com- 
plex than  any  timepiece.  In  such  heterogeneity  are 
vast  advantages,  —  else  it  would  not  have  come  about, 
—  but  it  requires  skill  to  realize  these  in  practice. 

Another  element  involved  is  speed,  a  comparatively 
modern  requirement.  The  ancient  civilizations,  Egypt, 
Persia,  India,  China,  as  the  savage  and  patriarchal 
society  which  preceded  them,  gave  promise  of  an  ad- 
vancement they  somehow  failed  to  fulfill.  Shackle 
upon  shackle  —  communism  in  property  and  industry ; 
physical,  economic,  and  social  isolation;  reverence  for 
past  achievements;  rulership  of  the  old;  hypertrophy 
of  institutionalism  —  stagnated  these  ancient  peoples. 
Once  on  the  path  of  progress,  however,  —  in  itself  a 
great  achievement,  —  with  competition  and  discussion, 
the  forward  look,  the  tentative  attitude,  and  the  future 
brightly  painted,  men  began  to  feel  a  thrill  in  motion. 
Such  is  increasingly  true  in  our  day.  The  inventor 
scarce  has  perfected  one  device  before  he  is  urged  on  by 
fresh  demands;  the  politician  in  drafting  a  good  bill 
has  won  opportunity  to  draft  better  bills ;  the  pleased 
scientist,  contemplating  his  new  generalization,  is  ad- 
monished to  make  it  shorter  and  more  comprehensive ; 
industry,  pressed  hard  by  labor  for  higher  wage,  capital 


4  EXECUTIVE  ABILITY 

for  increased  interest,  landowner  for  more  rent,  and 
management  for  greater  profit,  vibrates  with  energy, 
its  individual  workman  speeded  up,  its  organization 
adjusted  so  that  from  raw  product  to  shipping  room  the 
material  flows  without  congestion,  its  capital  made 
active  through  frequent  turnover.  Yet  to  work  rapidly, 
to  meet  the  new  and  subdue  it  promptly,  in  the  in(h- 
vidual  are  characteristics  of  an  expert;  with  huge  and 
intricate  organization,  a  task  for  super-man. 

Much  more  comprehensive  than  size  of  organiza- 
tion, its  heterogeneity,  or  the  required  speed  of  manipu- 
lation is  the  demand  for  effectiveness  in  its  operation. 
In  fact,  size,  complexity,  and  speed  are  in  themselves 
but  means  to  this  larger  end,  efficiency.  Fundamentally, 
what  is  here  involved  is  nothing  less  than  success  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  the  prime  consideration  why  any 
creature  should  limit  its  individuality  in  order  to  lead 
the  collective  life.  Ants  exhibit  no  Hobbesian  war, 
but  instead  dwell  in  colonies  together ;  prairie  dogs  live 
in  towns ;  wolves  hunt  in  packs ;  deer,  cattle,  buffaloes, 
and  horses  each  group  themselves  into  herds.  Savages, 
in  their  clans,  phratries,  and  tribes,  indicate  one  stage  in 
the  transition  toward  Greek  city  state,  feudal  holding, 
EngHsh  manor,  German  free  city,  workmen's  gild; 
and  these  in  turn  are  but  the  forerunners  of  present- 
day  municipalities,  neighborhoods,  trade-unions,  political 
parties,  and  corporations.  Why  have  men  thus  per- 
sistently led  the  collective  life?  Because  no  principle 
is  more  basic  than  desire  for  greatest  gain  with  least 
effort ;  —  men  through  combined  actions  can  accom- 
plish what  individually  is  impossible,  they  can  get  more 
as  members  of  an  organization  than  they  could  as 
individuals. 

To  fulfill  this  collective  ideal  of  effectiveness  requires, 
of  course,  concerted  effort;    members  must  work  to- 


EXECUTIVE  A  VARIATE  5 

gether.  In  the  securing  of  such  action,  we  note,  all 
men  are  not  of  equal  value,  and  herein  lies  the  origin 
of  leadership.  Men  by  nature  and  nurture  are  unlike, 
quite  in  keeping  "with  most  natural  phenomena,  their 
qualities  exhibiting  a  normal  frequency  distribution.^ 
Some  few  are  geniuses,  some  few  are  cranks,  most  are 
mediocres.  Now  working  together  requires  a  certain 
degree  of  similarity;  since  mutually  antagonistic  men 
could  never  carry  out  a  common  enterprise,  collective 
action  rests  upon  proper  conformity  to  type.  Here 
arises  the  problem  of  the  genius  and  the  fool ;  they  are 
unlike  most  men,  they  insist  upon  retaining,  nay,  more 
than  that,  upon  realizing,  their  unUkenesses;  and  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  clearly  one  from  the  other.  The 
common  criminal  it  is  easy  to  lock  up,  yet  what  does  the 
world  not  owe  to  Socrates,  Jesus,  Luther,  Darwin? 
So  stoned  they  the  prophets.  Selecting  the  right  va- 
riate  and  cleaving  only  to  him,  thus  becomes  the  chief 

*  It  is  of  some  importance  that  this  point  of  view  be  grasped.  Let  us 
illustrate  by  a  study  made  of  61,581  flowers  of  the  normal  five-petal 
sort,  these  being  found  distributed  as  follows: 


No.  of  petals 
Frequency  .     . 


234  5  678 

I      6      283       61,060       221      9       I 


Of  this  five-petal  flower,  by  far  the  greatest  number  were  normal, 
that  is,  were  true  to  type.  But  some  five  hundred  varied  from  type; 
and  the  fact  should  also  be  noted  that  the  greater  the  variation,  the  less  the 
number  of  variates.  These  frequencies,  plotted  on  a  chart,  would  show 
graphically  what  is  termed  a  normal  curve  of  distribution.  Galton  found 
a  Uke  distribution  in  measuring  the  strength  of  pull  of  519  men,  and  Karl 
Pearson  has  plotted  a  similar  frequency  curve  indicating  the  distribution 
of  intelligence  in  1000  individuals. 

All  books  on  statistics  treat  this  subject  of  frequency  distribution, 
the  chapter  in  G.  Udny  Yule's  Theory  of  Statistics  perhaps  being  as 
good  as  any.  For  the  examples  here  cited,  see  Vernon,  Variation  in 
Animals  arid  Plants,  15;  Galton,  Natural  Inheritance,  199;  and  Biomet- 
rica,  V,  iii. 


6  EXECUTIVE   ABILITY 

business  of  the  common  man,  for  such  variates  are 
immensely  helpful. 

The  particular  direction  in  which  his  helpfulness  is 
shown  depends  upon  the  group  need.  With  enemies 
round  about,  the  strong  arm  and  steady  eye  have  won 
respect.  When  unusual  calamities,  uncanny  visita- 
tions, and  magic  portents  terrorize  simple  faith,  he  leads 
who  best  can  peer  into  the  unknown,  placate  the  unseen, 
and  stiffen  troubled  souls.  With  men's  energies  har- 
nessed to  work,  the  materialistic  conception  of  history 
widely  held,  and  abundant  natural  resources  waiting 
to  be  exploited,  authority  passes  to  the  business  man. 
Or  again,  a  wider  socialization  emphasizes  new  alignments, 
elevating  among  men  the  applied  scientist,  the  conser- 
vationist, the  teachers  of  brotherhood,  social  justice, 
and  other  phases  of  applied  idealism,  as  is  being  done  in 
our  own  day.  Be  the  particular  need  what  it  will,  he 
who  best  aids  his  group  in  realizing  it  is  the  helpful 
variate,  the  successful  executive. 

It  would  follow  that  leadership  assumes  maximum 
importance  in  times  when  the  organization  is  under 
stress.  Herds  of  cattle  feeding  quietly  represent  thor- 
oughgoing equality;  let  danger  threaten,  and  forward 
stalks  the  defiant  bull.  The  arrival  of  a  stranger  in  the 
Indian  camp  finds  many  hands  pointing  the  way  to  the 
chief's  tent.  War  clouds  gathering  in  the  East  permitted 
Themistocles  to  break  with  all  tradition  by  making 
Athens  the  greatest  naval  power  in  Hellas.  It  was  when 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the 
people  was  threatened  that  Lincoln  wielded  a  power 
such  as  few  Presidents  have  ever  possessed.  Periods 
of  uncertainty,  of  transition,  of  struggle  intensify  the 
group  needs,  and  in  them  have  all  social  saviors  been 
born. 

To  whom  shall  we   to-day   grant    this   title?      To 


PERSONAL  LEADERSHIP  7 

him  best  able  to  bear  the  burden  of  a  large  organization, 
most  versatile  in  dealing  with  its  complexities,  most 
adroit  in  pushing  it  at  top  speed,  and  most  effective  in 
guaranteeing  its  members  greatest  returns  for  least 
effort. 

Two  types  of  men,  each  in  his  own  way,  seek  to  satisfy 
these  tests:  one,  intellectual, — author,  scientist,  artist, 
historian,  theologian,  philosopher;  the  other,  executive, 
—  railroad  president,  governor,  bishop,  university  presi- 
dent, trade-union  official,  factory  superintendent.  In 
one  type,  intellect  is  emphasized ;  in  the  other,  personal 
impression  —  a  distinction  by  no  means  arbitrary, 
however.  The  intellectual  leader  is  never  divorced 
from  face-to-face  relations,  and  the  personal  leader 
depends  upon  intellect  at  every  step.  The  difference  is 
one  of  relative  emphasis  only.  Of  the  two  types,  the 
latter,  the  personal,  is  here  selected  for  study,  and  its 
representative  in  the  following  pages  will  be  referred 
to  as  executive,  or,  should  the  context  make  the  meaning 
clear,  simply  as  leader. 

This  study  of  the  executive  presents  three  main  lines 
of  investigation.  First,  the  executive  as  an  individual. 
What  sort  of  a  man  is  he?  In  what  respects,  if  any, 
does  he  differ  from  ordinary  men?  These  are  among 
the  questions  discussed  in  Part  I.  Second,  the  executive 
motivating  his  organization.  By  what  means  are  men 
stimulated?  How  is  control  secured?  This  comprises 
Part  11.  Third,  the  reactions  of  his  co-workers  upon 
him.  By  what  means  do  they  limit  his  authority? 
How  may  these  limits  be  expanded  ?  How  secure  effec- 
tive adaptation?  This  is  for  Part  HI.  Only  by  con- 
sidering these  three  points  of  view  and  balancing  them 
in  their  mutual  relations  do  we  reach  a  complete  psy- 
chology of  management  and  explain  the  control  of  men. 

The  claims  of  Part  I  are  usually  overlooked,  the 


8  EXECUTIVE  ABILITY 

interest,  instead,  tending  to  dwell  upon  that  which  is 
more  apparent  and  more  striking,  the  executive  dominat- 
ing his  co-workers.  But  perhaps  he  has  already  with- 
stood certain  tests,  physical  and  mental,  and  it  may  be 
that  these  personal  factors  have  determined  that  he 
should  be  leader  and  not  of  the  led.  Is  the  executive, 
therefore,  a  selected  individual?  To  this  question  we 
now  turn. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  four  factors  enter  into  production?  What  does  each 
contribute?    (See  any  standard  work  on  economics.) 

2.  Show  the  importance  of  tl^e  executive's  contribution.  Is 
his  r61e  increasing  or  decreasing  in  comparative  importance? 

3.  Define  "utUity."  Is  the  politician  as  real  a  producer  as  the 
manufacturer? 

4.  Who  is  the  greatest  contemporary  leader? 

5.  Are  contemporary  leaders  surpassed  by  historical  char- 
acters? 

6.  Illustrate  by  concrete  example  drawn  from  personal  expe- 
rience :  mutual  aid  among  animals,  leadership  in  animal  groups, 
how  a  community  decides  whether  the  newcomer  is  a  valuable 
member  or  otherwise,  the  four  tests  of  executive  ability  success- 
fully met  by  a  leader. 

READINGS 

McDouGALL,  Socid  Psychology,  Ch.  I. 
Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  Ch.  I. 


PART   I:    INDIVIDUALITY 


CHAPTER  n 
The  Source  of  Personal  Power 

"The  initiative  of  wise  or  noble  things  comes  and  must  come 
from  individuals,  generally  at  first  from  some  one  individual." 

—  John  Stuart  Mill. 

"There  is  always  room  for  a  man  of  force,  and  he  makes  room 
for  many."  _  j^^^^  ^^^^^^^  Emerson. 

Each  executive  is  inclined  to  feel  his  own  task  is  un- 
like any  other;  "my  business  is  different."  It  is  a 
pleasant  fiction.  All  executives  are  alike  in  this  signifi- 
cant respect,  they  must  handle  people.  Now  human 
nature  is  pretty  much  the  same  the  world  over ;  in  con- 
sequence, however  apparent  the  differences  in  manag- 
ing mill  or  public  school  or  railroad,  the  executive's  task 
is  essenttally  the  same  everywhere.  Making  use  of 
methods  diverse  as  to  detail  but  alike  in  principle,  the 
general  manager,  bishop,  or  politician  each  holds  in  hand 
the  reins  of  power. 

From  this  point  of  view,  may  there  not  be  certain 
activities  in  which  the  executive  most  clearly  manifests 
his  supremacy?  And  should  not  these  when  tevealed 
answer  that  age-old  question  as  to  what  is  the  "secret" 
of  leadership?  Regarding  the  executive  as  a  man  of 
deeds,  in  order  to  estimate  his  capacity  it  is  necessary  to 
note  both  what  he  gets  done  and  the  conditions  under 
which  he  does  it.  Let  us  consider  first  the  conditions 
surrounding  this  man  of  affairs. 


12         THE  SOURCE  OF  PERSONAL  POWER 


THE   EXECUTIVE  AND  ADVERSE  PRESSURE 

The  executive,  as  has  been  pointed  out  before,  rises 
to  his  full  power  in  times  of  transition.  Alexander, 
Napoleon,  Washington,  Rockefeller,  Carnegie,  Vail,  all 
were  men  of  change.  The  organization  each  controlled 
was  much  different  when  he  had  done  with  it.  Yet  how 
adverse  to  change  is  the  rank  and  file!  Habit  breeds 
in  the  narrow  outlook  and  routine  practice  of  subordi- 
nates. The  organization,  quite  the  same  as  the  larger 
organization  termed  society,  develops  its  grooves  of 
thought  along  which  the  mental  Hfe  flows  freely  but 
outside  of  which  it  is  troublesome  to  go.  The  approved 
practice  is  in  the  air ;  it  impinges  upon  the  individual 
at  every  turn. 

Thus  is  shaped  the  age-old  struggle  between  con- 
formity and  innovation,  a  struggle  that  is  of  daily  sig- 
nificance to  every  executive.  Conformity  develops  be- 
cause community  enterprise  requires  concerted  action, 
and  concerted  action  entails  disciphne.  Certain  types 
of  conduct,  in  consequence,  become  reprehensible ;  cer- 
tain types  are  approved,  because  they  have  seemed  to 
work  well.  These  tend  to  become  social  habits.  Par- 
ents especially,  by  the  overlapping  of  generations,  shape 
plastic  minds  to  the  requirements.  Supernatural  sanc- 
tions come  to  attach  themselves  to  these  folkways, 
lending  horror  to  the  new  or  unknown  and  hardening 
the  folkways  into  mores.  As  in  primitive  society,  with 
its  ancestor  worship,  its  council  of  old  men  who  merely 
disclose  what  always  has  been,  its  insistence  that  what- 
ever is,  is  right,  so  in  the  early  empires  of  Egypt,  Baby- 
lonia, and  Persia,  with  the  same  practices  writ  large, 
individuality  was  dwarfed  and  innovation  crushed  under 
a  cake  of  custom. 

But  bold,  hardy  natures  chafe  under  such  restrictions. 


MEN  OF  ENTERPRISE  13 

Like  the  Norsemen  of  whom  Gibbon  writes,  "Impatient 
of  a  bleak  climate  and  narrow  limits,  they  started  from 
the  banquet,  sounded  their  horn,  ascended  their  vessels, 
and  explored  every  coast  that  promised  either  spoil 
or  settlement,''  variates  from  the  East  plowed  the  soft 
waters  of  the  ^Egean,  and  in  the  sheltered  harbors  and 
fertile  vales  became  the  d3aiamic  men  of  Greece.  When 
Hellas  cramped,  their  sons  in  turn  pushed  westward  and 
Greek  colonies  fringed  the  Mediterranean. 

A  like  process  was  European  nation  building.  The 
first  kings  were  not  institutions  but  merely  individuals 
who,  during  the  period  of  conquest  and  migration  which 
formed  the  state  itself,  pushed  to  the  front  as  success- 
ful military  adventurers.  **The  communities  conquered 
by  the  early  host  leaders  probably  regarded  the  latter  as 
temporary  nuisances,  who  would  in  due  course  be  re- 
moved by  the  hand  of  death.  Their  position  was  totally 
opposed  to  the  old  ideas  of  society ;  they  were  much  too 
stem,  much  too  enterprising,  much  too  neglectful  of 
time-honored  practice,  to  suit  the  easy-going  ways  of 
patriarchal  society."  ^ 

Contemporary  leaders  realize,  too,  that  notwithstand- 
ing the  worship  of  progress  we  have  not  escaped  the 
custom  which  cramps.  Whole  segments  of  social  life 
are  fossiliferous.  Law's  strict  adherence  to  precedent, 
religion's  indifference  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  letter 
which  killeth,  education's  materials  designed  for  an  age 
long  past,  public  opinion's  threatened  "thought  trust," 
industry's  "red  tape"  parading  as  efficiency,  all  repre- 
sent a  hardening  of  the  social  arteries. 

Such  a  situation  does  not  stimulate  all  alike.  Whether 
it  be  in  a  primitive  group,  an  early  empire,  a  conserva- 
tive state,  or  moss-grown  factory,  most  men  yield  easily 
to  the  claims  of  custom.     But  abounding  vitality  is 

*  Jenks,  History  of  Politics,  84-85. 


14         THE   SOURCE  OF  PERSONAL  POWER 

not  yielding,  but  assertive.  It  makes  men  motors,  not 
trailers.  It  insures  an  expansive  personality,  a  reach- 
ing after  the  new  and  untried,  a  self  unique  and  asser- 
tive. 

It  is  not  mere  inertia,  however,  with  which  a  leader 
has  to  contend  should  he  wish  to  introduce  improved 
management,  social  justice,  or  a  new  freedom.  Opposi- 
tion confronts  the  innovator.  The  Chicago  papers  re- 
ferred to  the  evangelist  as  "Crazy''  Moody  and  claimed 
that  P.  T.  Barnum  was  backing  the  whole  movement. 
Clergymen  saw  in  William  Lloyd  Garrison  "an  arch- 
conspirator  against  the  very  framework  of  society,  a 
wretch  for  whom  the  penitentiary  was  too  good."  ^ 
So  industriously  were  tales  of  his  "wickedness"  circu- 
lated that  the  peasantry  believed  Clive  had  built  the 
walls  of  his  house  so  thick  in  order  to  keep  out  the  devil.^ 
Wyclif's  enemies  termed  him  "a  glutton  when  he  ate, 
and  a  hypocrite  when  he  fasted."  Roosevelt's  oppo- 
nents in  a  recent  campaign,  it  is  said,  could  not  men- 
tion him  without  frothing  at  the  mouth.  The  leader, 
therefore,  as  he  clears  the  social  jungles  and  disturbs 
its  moss-grown  trunks,  is  opposed  as  a  fanatic,  a  danger- 
ous disorganizer,  an  unsafe  man.  Such  opposition  sends 
most  men  home — to  bed.  They  withdraw  within  them- 
selves, their  social  self  wilted.  The  vigorous  nature, 
however,  reacts  positively.  It  rises  above  depreciation 
because  the  dynamo  is  within. 

Again,  it  is  not  merely  withstanding  opposition  as 
such  that  must  be  noted,  but  the  particular  way  in  which 
the  executive  is  called  upon  to  meet  it.  The  intellectual 
leader  as  editor  pens  the  stinging  blow,  safely  sheltered 
by  roll-top  desk;  as  sculptor  in  his  studio  he  models 
the  statue  which  divides  into  warring  camps  the  world 

»  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  IV,  337. 

'  Malleson,  Life  of  Robert  Clive,  490-491. 


FACE-TO-FACE  RELATIONS  15 

of  art;  as  peaceful  scientist  in  his  laboratory  he  but- 
tresses with  evidence  his  revolutionary  theories.  As 
Voltaire,  the  luring  old  mocker,  threw  bombs  at  the 
Ancient  Regime,  himself  in  retreat,  or  Marat  drove 
Lafayette  into  desperation  with  the  scurrilous  sheet 
composed  in  sewer  or  attic,  this  type  of  leader  may  be 
in  the  world  and  yet  not  personally  of  it.  Our  type  of 
leader,  however,  must  descend  into  the  arena,  there  to 
contend  face-to-face  with  robust  personalities. 

A  Melancthon,  diffident,  hesitating,  of  frail  body  and 
stammering  tongue,  by  this  test  is  clearly  set  apart  in 
type  of  leadership  from  a  Luther,  "rough,  boisterous, 
stormy,  and  altogether  war Hke'' ;  as  he  himself  says, 
"bom  to  fight  against  innumerable  monsters  and  devils." 
And  this  test  of  face-to-face  relations,  in  industry, 
politics,^  and  the  ministry  as  well,  will  not  soon  pass 
away. 

So  far  as  adverse  pressure  is  concerned,  consequently, 
we  conclude  that  a  leader  must  pierce  the  cake  of  cus- 
tom, surmount  opposition,  maintain  the  positive  atti- 
tude, and  meet  opponents  face-to-face,  tasks  all  of  which 
require  vigor. 

^  In  the  House  of  Commons  the  following  scene  occurred  not  long 
since.  Mr.  Asquith  had  made  a  statement.  "Then  up  jumped  Mr. 
Lounsbury,  his  face  contorted  with  passion,  and  his  powerful  rasping 
voice  dominating  the  whole  house.  Shouting  and  waving  his  arms,  he 
approached  the  government  Front  Bench  with  a  curious  crouching  gait, 
like  a  boxer  leaving  his  comer  in  the  ring.  One  or  two  Liberals  on  the 
bench  behind  Mr.  Asquith  half  rose,  but  the  Prime  Minister  sat  stolidly 
gazing  above  the  heads  of  the  opposition,  his  arms  folded,  and  his  lips 
pursed.  Mr.  Lounsbury  had  worked  himself  up  into  a  state  of  frenzy 
and,  facing  the  Prime  Minister,  he  shouted,  'You  are  beneath  my  con- 
tempt !  Call  yourself  a  gentleman  !  You  ought  to  be  driven  from  public 
life,'  .  .  .  For  five  minutes  the  Honourable  George  Lounsbury  defied 
the  Speaker,  insulted  the  Prime  Minister,  and  scorned  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  raved  in  an  ecstasy  of  passion;  challenging,  taunting, 
and  defying."    Atlantic  Monthly,  October,  191 2,  p.  435. 


i6        THE  SOURCE  OF  PERSONAL  POWER 


THE  WORK   TEST 

The  view  has  attained  some  popularity  that  greatness 
consists  in  rising  above  personal  effort,  that  truly  im- 
portant men  rest  content  in  making  others  work.  It  is 
believed,  moreover,  —  and  this  view  is  illustrated  in 
practice  by  the  leisure  class,  —  that  returns  come  not 
from  toil,  but  from  having  the  throttle  hold.  Without 
doubt  vast  enterprises  are  managed  only  through  or- 
ganization, as  will  later  be  shown;  but  organization 
'ever  requires  an  effective  head.  And  as  for  the  second 
view,  an  equality  of  opportunity  is  being  worked  out 
under  which  regime  no  idler  may  eat  of  another's  bread. 

Leading  historical  characters,  in  addition,  exempHfy 
no  policy  of  inaction ;  they  have  been  mighty  in  effort. 
Bismarck's  "power  of  work  was  marvelous.  His  phys- 
ical and  intellectual  vigor  seemed  inexhaustible." 
Charles  XII,  the  Madman  of  the  North,  "like  his  father, 
was  fond  of  hard  work,  and  had  an  infinite  capacity  for 
taking  pains."  O'ConnelFs  energy  "was  amazing,  and 
only  equaled  by  his  enthusiasm."  Mohammed  "worked 
continuously,  allowing  himself  no  day  of  rest."  John 
Wesley's  "devotion  to  the  plan  of  duty  he  had  laid  down 
for  himself  was  so  entire  and  so  absorbing,  that  it  left 
no  time  for  leisure,  hardly  for  reflection.  He  was  always 
going  somewhere."  William  the  Silent,  in  preparing 
for  the  confederation,  "left  no  stone  unturned,  exerting 
himself  so  strenuously  that  he  hardly  had  time  to  breathe 
from  morning  to  night."  Although  among  the  powers 
of  Frederick  the  Great  his  "  energy  alone  was  truly  great," 
this  energy  "was  such  that  to  him  few  achievements  were 
impossible."  Charlemagne,  though  burdened  with  the 
cares  of  a  vast  empire,  tried  in  addition  to  educate  him- 
self, learned  foreign  languages,  studied  grammar,  rhetoric, 
logic,  and  astronomy  under  Alcuin ;  and  Einhard  relates 


INTENSE  ACTIVITY  17 

that  "Karl  also  tried  to  write,  and  used  to  keep  his 
tablets  and  writing-book  under  the  pillow  of  his  couch, 
that  when  he  had  leisure  he  might  practice  his  hand  in 
forming  letters." 

Such  activity  at  times  approaches  the  abnormal  in 
its  intensity.  Henry  IV  of  France  was  movement 
incarnate,  and  even  in  later  years,  "when  after  a  long 
day's  hunting  his  weary  attendants  could  hardly  stand, 
he  would  not  rest,  but  must  move  about."  His  biog- 
rapher says  that  "from  boyhood  on,  nothing  is  more 
characteristic  of  Alexander  than  his  restless  passion  for 
reshaping  and  subduing.  Action  was  almost  a  mania 
with  him."  The  Emperor  Napoleon,  in  the  midst  of  his 
mighty  toils  of  war,  did  not  neglect  the  civil  affairs  of 
his  huge  domain.  "We  see  him,  in  his  tent  at  Asterode 
and  Fenkenslein,  administering,  in  the  minutest  detail, 
his  centralized  and  all-controlling  government.  He 
props  up  the  finances,  tries  to  promote  industry,  en- 
courages letters  and  the  education  of  the  young,  and 
keeps  a  watchful  eye  on  a  jealous  police." 

These  history  makers  in  general  seem  to  have  practiced 
the  view  thus  set  forth  by  one  of  them :  "Talleyrand," 
Napoleon  once  remarked  to  his  Prime  Minister,  "the 
best  evidence  of  abihty  is  immense  capacity  for  hard 
work  and  an  intense  conviction  of  its  necessity."  And 
who  shall  claim  the  rulers  of  business  or  politics  to-day 
are  not  like  unto  them? 

THE  UNUSUAL  AS   OPPORTUNITY 

Such  tasks  as  just  mentioned  draw  the  life  blood; 
they  leave  the  ordinary  man  with  his  personality  ex- 
ploited. In  this  condition,  he  must  forego  unusual 
opportunity,  because  if  embraced,  it  threatens  to  sub- 
merge him.    As  Bismarck  at  Saint  Petersburg,  on  re- 


i8         THE  SOURCE  OF  PERSONAL   POWER 

ceiving  news  that  a  call  to  the  Prussian  ministry  was 
imminent,  wrote  to  Roon:  "Your  letter  disturbed  me  in 
my  comfortable  meditations.  Your  cry  Ho  horse'  came 
with  a  shrill  discord.  I  have  grown  ill  in  mind,  tired 
out,  and  spiritless  since  I  lost  the  foundation  of  my 
health." 

Bismarck,  however,  with  reserve  possibilities,  after  a 
night's  rest  added  this  postscript  of  the  morning,  "If 
the  King  will  to  some  extent  meet  my  views,  then  I  will 
set  to  work  with  pleasure."  After  a  brief  vacation, 
so  far  was  his  old  spirit,  decision,  and  directness  of  action 
recovered  that  he  agreed  to  undertake  the  government 
as  Minister-President,  even  against  a  majority  of  the 
parliament,  without  a  budget,  circumstances  to  try  the 
strongest  nerves.  Carrying  the  burden  which  had 
crushed  others,  in  nine  years  the  King  whom  he  had 
found  ready  to  abdicate  he  saw  crowned  as  Emperor 
of  United  Germany,  himself  at  the  peace  negotiations, 
thus  impressing  an  interested  spectator:  "I  was  at  the 
outset  struck  by  the  contrast  between  the  negotiators. 
Count  Bismarck  wore  the  uniform  of  the  White  Cuiras- 
siers, white  tunic,  white  cap,  and  yellow  band.  He 
looked  a  giant.  In  his  tight  uniform,  with  his  broad 
chest  and  square  shoulders,  and  bursting  with  health 
and  strength,  he  overwhelmed  the  stooping,  thin,  tall, 
miserable-looking  lawyer  with  his  frock  coat,  wrinkled 
all  over,  and  his  white  hair  falling  over  his  collar.  A 
look,  alas,  at  the  pair  was  sufficient  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  conqueror  and  conquered,  the  strong  and 
the  weak."  ^ 

With  such  powers  as  this  as  a  basis,  men  move  from 
province  to  capital,  expand  clerkships  into  managerial 
positions.  No  particular  merit  attaches  to  the  usual 
accomplishment;    but  the  man  of  energy-plus  is  able 

*  Headlam,  Bismarck,  146,  159,  161,  162,  358,  377. 


ENERGY-PLUS  19 

to  handle  the  emergency  order  or,  like  Alexander  and 
Frederick  the  Great,  construct  an  organization  demand- 
ing more  than  any  successor  can  furnish.  He  overflows 
his  position.  The  recent  term  as  president  of  a  truly 
dynamic  man  was  marked  by  a  crop  of  pamphlets  on 
"executive  usurpation."  Now  vigorous  men  always 
will  seek  power;  unusual  energy  cannot  be  restrained 
by  the  usual  Umits,  but  expanding  these  limits  will  win 
distinction  by  doing  the  extra  thing. 

What,  then,  should  be  regarded  as  the  basis  of  execu- 
tive ability?  Its  ultimate  source  is  energy.  In  with- 
standing adverse  pressure,  doing  large  amounts  of  work, 
and  overflowing  the  usual,  success  is  Unked  up  with 
energy.  Limited  vigor,  it  is  true,  permits  a  man  to  be 
a  world  figure,  as  Darwin  or  Spencer,  to  do  thinking 
for  all  time;  it  may  even  permit  men,  like  Hamilton, 
to  be  a  leader  of  leaders ;  but  in  the  management  of  men 
at  first  hand  mere  physical  energy  is  fimdamental. 

SOURCE  OF  ENERGY 

In  seeking  out  the  source  of  this  energy  we  are  led 
into  a  set  of  most  interesting  problems,  the  domain  of 
physiological  chemistry.  Here  preside  a  group  of 
scientists  intent  on  solving  the  riddle  of  life,  and  they 
have  already  gone  far.  Not  only  have  they  become 
able  to  produce  artificially  the  compounds  formed  in 
the  animal  body,  but  the  chemical  reactions  which  take 
place  in  Uving  organisms  they  can  repeat  at  the  same 
rate  and  temperature  in  the  laboratory.^  Such  experi- 
ments do  much  to  place  life  upon  a  strictly  natural- 
istic basis,  which,  it  may  be  added,  includes  nervous 
phenomena  as  well.     For  to  the  physiologist  the  func- 

*  Loeb,  Mechanistic  Conception  of  Life,  5.  Sec  also  his  Dynamics  of 
Living  Matter,  7. 


20         THE   SOURCE  OF  PERSONAL  POWER 

tions  of  the  nervous  system,  even  the  most  intricate 
thought  processes,  are  simply  manifestations  of  energy. 
The  capacities  of  the  nervous  system  are  thus  dependent 
directly  upon  the  chemical  and  physical  alterations  going 
on  constantly  within  its  constituents.^ 

The  body,  consequently,  may  be  regarded  as  a  chem- 
ical machine.  Through  the  food  which  he  eats  —  and 
digests  J  it  must  never  be  forgotten  —  the  individual 
stores  up  within  his  body,  for  use  when  needed,  quan- 
tities of  highly  complex  and  unstable  chemical  com- 
pounds. Operated  upon  by  nervous  stimuli,  these 
compounds  assume  more  simple  and  stable  forms, 
at  the  same  time  liberating  heat  and  performing  work. 
The  body  is  by  no  means  static;  composed  of  living 
cells,  it  is  dynamic,  the  scene  of  incessant  change. 

The  building  up  process,  termed  anabolism,  and  the 
destructive  process,  termed  katabolism,  are  continually 
going  on  side  by  side,  a  just  balance  between  the  two, 
in  the  long  run,  being  essential  to  well-being  and  con- 
tinued accomplishment.  A  high  energizing  rate,  con- 
sequently, calls  for  an  equally  rapid  constructive  process 
—  via  the  lungs  and  stomach.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  a  leader  is  well  fortified  in  fundamentals  when,  as 
Thomas  Jefferson  wrote  of  himself,  he  is  "blessed  with 
organs  of  digestion  which  accepted  and  concocted,  with- 
out ever  murmuring,  whatever  the  palate  chose  to  con- 
sign to  them." 

EXERCISES 

1.  Which  binds  its  members  more  closely  by  custom,  a  religious 
organization  or  a  business  organization?    Why? 

2.  What  truth  behind  the  phrase  "Westward  the  star  of  em- 
pire takes  its  sway"? 

*  Barker,  The  Nervous  System.  Howell,  Text-Book  of  Physiology, 
130-171  passim. 


EXERCISES  AND   READINGS  21 

3.  Why  do  we  ridicule  the  customs  of  other  peoples  while 
oblivious  to  our  own? 

4.  By  what  methods  do  some  executives  avoid  face-to-face 
relations  ?    Why  ? 

5.  Discuss  the  relation  between  business  success  and  overtime. 

6.  Why  do  wage  earners  believe  the  executive  does  not  work? 

READINGS 
Sumner,  Folkways,  Ch.  II,  or  Bagehot,  Physics  and  PolUicSy 

ch.  m. 

Ladd  and  Woodworth,  Physiological  Psychology,  Ch.  XI. 


CHAPTER  m 
The  Physique  of  Executives 

"The  body  is  but  a  watch,  whose  watchmaker  is  the  new 
chyle."  — La  Mettrie. 

Viewing  it  as  a  chemical  machine,  is  a  larger  body 
able  to  supply  a  greater  amount  of  energy  ?  A  diagram 
may  make  this  problem  clearer.  As  is  indicated  in  the 
accompanying  figure  (Fig.  i),  the  body  is  divided  into 
two  ca\dties,  a  dorsal  and  a  ventral.  The  dorsal, 
housing  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  need  not  now  engage 
our  attention.  But  the  ventral,  it  is  seen,  is  divided  by 
a  muscular  partition,  the  diaphragm,  into  two  sections: 
the  thoracic,  in  which  lie  the  heart  and  lungs ;  and  the 
abdominal,  occupied  in  the  main  by  the  digestive  system. 
The  action  of  these  various  organs,  briefly  stated,  is  as 
follows :  the  food  is  taken  into  the  mouth,  there  masti- 
cated, mixed  with  saliva,  and  swallowed.  In  the  stom- 
ach and  intestines  this  food  is  mixed  with  other  fluids, 
digested,  and  after  being  absorbed  through  the  stomach 
and  intestinal  walls,  is  carried  away  by  the  circulation. 
In  the  cells  of  the  body  this  nutritive  material  combined 
with  oxygen  develops  energy.  The  waste  products  of 
the  process  are  removed  by  the  blood  which,  in  turn, 
is  purified  in  the  lungs.  Now  the  question  arises,  a 
similar  effectiveness  of  action  being  granted  in  each 
case:  will  not  more  capacious  organs  mean  increased 
power  ?  Or,  stating  it  in  terms  of  the  preceding  chapter: 
should  not  leaders  be  physically  large? 

22 


A  STATISTICAL  INQUIRY 


23 


spinal  cord 


HMrt 

Diaphragtn 


It  was  with  a  view  to  bringing  statistical  evidence  to 
bear  upon  this  question,  among  others,  that  a  letter  of 
inquiry  was  sent  to  one 
hundred  leading  railroad 
executives,  presidents  in 
most  cases,  but  a  number 
of  general  managers  of 
the  larger  systems  being 
also  included;  fifty-five 
replied.  Tabulated,  their 
answers  reveal  the  inter- 
esting information  that 
this  group  of  men  aver- 
age fiye_feet,  ten  .and 
nine  tenths  inches  in 
height ;  weight  one  hun- 
dred eighty-six  pounds. 
A  slightly  different  type 
of  leader  was  then  chosen, 
and  letters  of  inquiry 
sent  to  the  respective 
governors.  Forty-six  re- 
pUes  were  tabulated. 
The  governors  are  five 
feet,  eleven  and^Tiwo 
tenths^  incites  Tall ;  and 
weigKtT  one  hundred 
eighty-two  pounds.  An- 
other group  of  leaders 
was  next  selected,  this 
time  from  the  educational 
field,  the  university  presidents.  Seventy-six  letters  were 
sent ;  sixty-one  replies  received.  Again  was  indicated  a 
man  of  relatively  large  physique ;  height  five  feet,  ten 
and  eight  tenths  inches,  weight  one  hundred  eighty-one 


inUsiint 


Fig.  I.  —  Dorsal  and  Ventral  Cavi- 
ties OF  Body. 

Reproduced  from  Overton's  General  Hygiene, 
copyright,  19 13,  by  American  Book  Company, 
Publishers. 


24  THE  PHYSIQUE  OF  EXECUTIVES 

pounds.  One  more  illustration  may  here  be  given.  Our 
country  has  its  reformers,  vigorous  agitators  against  city 
congestion,  tuberculosis,  bad  health  and  housing,  har- 
bingers of  good  roads,  short  ballots,  workmen's  compen- 
sation, etc.  These  men,  usually  termed  executive  secre- 
taries, to  the  number  of  forty- two  gave  personal  data. 
Their  height  is  five  feet,  eleven  and  four  tenths  inches ; 
weight  one  hundred  eighty-one  pounds. 

Following  this  list,  2197  additional  letters  were  sent, 
making  a  total  of  2497.  "^^^  names  of  those  to  whom 
inquiry  was  directed  were  secured  from  Who's  Who, 
various  directories,  catalogues,  and  in  some  cases  from 
secretaries  or  others  informed  regarding  the  particular 
group.  The  returns,  it  is  believed,  cover  practically 
every  important  group  of  leaders  in  America.  The  data, 
including  several  other  items  of  interest  in  addition 
to  the  figures  relating  to  weight  and  height,  will  be 
presented  in  the  various  tables  and  diagrams  which 
follow.  In  the  Addenda  the  material  is  presented  in 
summarized  form,  to  which,  it  may  be  added,  the  reader 
should  turn  should  he  desire  more  information  than  is 
presented  in  connection  with  any  particular  diagram  or 
table. 

THE  HEIGHT  OF  EXECUTIVES 

In  addition  to  the  returns  received  from  the  executives 
it  was  thought  advisable  to  secure  data  from  intellec- 
tuals, as  this  term  is  defined  in  Chapter  I.  Accordingly, 
copies  of  the  questionnaire  were  sent  to  six  groups  of 
such  men  —  inventors,  psychologists,  artists,  authors, 
musicians,  and  philosophers.  In  all,  data  were  received 
from  forty  different  groups  of  leaders,  the  most  promi- 
nent men  in  the  country. 

The  replies  received  from  these  various  groups  were 
tabulated  and  the  groups  then  arranged  in  Table  I 


COMPARISONS  IN  HEIGHT  25 

LEADERS  RANKED  ACCORDING  TO  HEIGHT 


Rank 

Name  of  Group 

Height 

I 

Reformers 

5: 11.4 

2 

Superintendents  Street  Cleaning 

s- 11.3 

3 

Wardens 

5:11.3 

4 

Governors 

5: 11.2 

5 

Chdefs  of  PoUce 

5:11.1 

6 

Socialist  Organizers 

5 :  10.9  ^ 
5 :  10.9 

7 

Railroad  Presidents 

8 

University  Presidents 

5 :  io.8y 

9 

Economists  and  Sociologists 

5 :  10.8  ; 

10 

Bank  Presidents 

5 :  10.7 

II 

Senators 

5 :  I0.6 

12 

Bishops 

5 :  10.6 

13 

Presidents  State  Bar 

5 :  lO.S 

14 

City  School  Superintendents 

5 :  10.4 

IS 

Presidents  Labor  Organizations 

5 :  10.4 

16 

Presidents  Religious  Organizations 

5 :  10.4 

17 

Corporation  Directors 

5 :  10.4 

18 

Chiefs  Fire  Departments 

5 :  10.3 

19 

Anti-Saloon  League  Organizers 

5 :  I0.3 

20 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Secretaries 

5 :  10.3 

21 

Worid's  Work  List 

5 :  10.3 

22 

Inventors 

5 :  10.2 

23 

Authors 

5 :  10.2 

24 

Sales  Managers 

5:  lO.I 

25 

Artists 

5:  lo.i 

26 

Mayors                                                        --.^ 

5 :  lo.o 

27 

Factory  Superintendents 

S:    9.8 

28 

Insurance  Presidents 

5:    9.7 

29 

Psychologists 

5:    9-7 

30 

Presidents  Fraternal  Orders 

5:    9.6 

31 

Chief  Justices  State  Courts 

S:    9.6 

32 

Philosophers 

5:    9.6 

33 

Merchants 

5:    9.4 

34 

Rovmdhouse  Foremen 

5:    9.3 

35 

Anti-Saloon  League  Officials 

5:    9.2 

36 

Lecturers 

5:    9-2 

37 

Manufacturers 

5:    9-0 

38 

Labor  Organizers 

S:    8.2 

39 

Publishers 

S:    7.9 

40 

Musicians 

5:    5.6 

Height  is  given  in  feet,  inches,  and  tenths  of  inches,  and  includes 
shoes.  Shoes  were  also  included  in  the  policyholders'  measure- 
ments to  be  quoted  below.  If  height  without  shoes  is  desired, 
deduct  one  inch,  the  usual  practice  in  university  gymnasiums. 

Table  I. 


26  THE  PHYSIQUE  OF  EXECUTIVES 

according  to  the  average  height  of  their  members.  In 
looking  through  this  list  of  forty  groups  (see  Table  I), 
one  finds  the  executives  predominating  in  the  upper 
ranks  while  the  intellectuals  are  all  within  the  lower 
twenty  groups. 

THE  WEIGHT  OF  EXECUTIVES 

In  a  similar  way  we  may  study  the  returns  as  to 
weight.  For  this  purpose  let  us  construct  Table  II, 
Leaders  Ranked  According  to  Weight.  The  same 
general  conclusion  is  shown  here,  although  the  result 
in  this  case  is  somewhat  more  clear-cut  than  in  the  table 
showing  heights.  The  executives  predominate  in  the 
upper  ranks,  the  six  groups  of  intellectuals  being  con- 
fined to  the  lower  quarter  of  the  groups. 

The  above  conclusions  seem  to  imply,  perhaps,  that 
greatness  depends  merely  upon  size.  In  fact,  some  who 
have  seen  these  tables  prior  to  publication  in  more  than 
half  seriousness  have  declared  that  their  chances  for 
fame  were  such  and  such,  because  were  not  their  weights 
this  and  heights  that?  Further  thought,  however,  will 
dispel  many  of  these  hasty  conclusions.  As  was  pointed 
out  in  Chapter  I,  leaders  may  be  termed  either  intellec- 
tual or  executive,  the  latter  here  being  the  type  chosen 
for  study.  The  professor  of  philosophy  in  one  of  our 
leading  universities,  height  five  feet,  nine  and  six  tenths 
inches  and  weight  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  pounds, 
is  certainly,  when  judged  by  broad  social  effectiveness,  not 
inferior  to  the  average  chief  of  police  though  the  latter 
exceed  him  in  height  by  an  inch  and  a  half  and  in  weight 
by  forty-four  pounds. 

It  is  clear,  in  consequence,  that  the  conclusion  to  be 
drawn  from  the  above  tables  is  not  that  eminence  in 
general  is  necessarily  correlated  with   size,   but   that 


COMPARISONS  IN  WEIGHT  27 

LEADERS  RANKED  ACCORDING   TO  WEIGHT 


Rank 

Name  of  Group 

Weight 

1 

Superintendents  Street  Cleaning 

216.7 

2 

Chiefs  of  PoUce 

202.4 

3 

Wardens 

191-2 

4 

Presidents  Fraternal  Orders 

190.4 

5 

Chiefs  Fire  Departments 

189.4 

6 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Secretaries 

188.6 

7 

Bank  Presidents        f 

186.8 

8 

Factory  Superintendents 

186.7 

9 

Presidents  Labor  Organizations 

186.3 

10 

Railroad  Presidents 

186.3 

II 

Labor  Organizers 

186.1 

12 

Senators 

185.0 

13 

Anti-Saloon  League  Organizers 

184.9 

14 

Sales  Managers 

182.8 

IS 

Worid's  Work  List 

182.2 

16 

Governors 

182.0 

17 

Reformers 

181.7 

18 

University  Presidents 

181.6 

19 

Corporation  Directors 

179.8 

20 

City  School  Superintendents 

178.6 

21 

Roundhouse  Foremen 

I77-0 

22 

Mayors 

176.9 

23 

Bishops 

176.4 

24 

Anti-Saloon  League  Officials 

176.3 

25 

Insurance  Presidents 

175-2 

26 

Publishers 

171.9 

27 

Presidents  State  Bar 

171-S 

28 

Socialist  Organizers 

171.0 

29 

Economists  and  Sociologists 

170.8 

30 

Manufacturers 

169.9 

31 

Presidents  Religious  Organizations 

169.8 

32 

Inventors 

169.4 

33 

Chief  Justices  State  Courts                                  > 

169.0 

34 

Artists 

165-7 

35 

Merchants 

163-7 

36 

Lecturers 

162.3 

37 

Musicians 

161.9 

38 

Philosophers 

158.4 

39 

Authors 

158.0 

40 

Psychologists 

155-3 

Weight  is  given  in  pounds  and  tenths  of  a  pound,  and  includes 
clothing.  Clothing  was  also  included  in  the  policyholders'  meas- 
urements. If  weight  without  clothing  is  desired,  deduct  ten 
pounds,  the  usual  practice  in  university  gymnasiums. 


Table  U. 


28 


THE   PHYSIQUE  OF  EXECUTIVES 


TABLE  SHOWING  BOTH  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT 


Name  of  Group 

Height 

Weight 

5 :  11-3 

216.7 

Wardens 

5 

:n.3 

191. 2 

Chiefs  of  Police 

s 

II. I 

202.4 

Railroad  Presidents 

s 

:  lo.Q 

186.3 

Bank  Presidents 

5 

:io.7 

186.8 

Reformers 

s 

:  11.4 

181.7 

Governors 

s 

:  II. 2 

182.0 

Senators 

5 

•  10.6 

185.0 

Chiefs  Fire  Departments 

5 

•10.3 

189.4 

Presidents  Labor  Organizations 

S 

10.4 

186.3 

University  Presidents 

5 

10.8 

181.6 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Secretaries 

5 

.  X0.3 

188.6 

Anti-Saloon  League  Organizers 

S 

10.3 

184.9 

Presidents  Fraternal  Orders 

5 

■  9.6 

190.4 

City  School  Superintendents 

S 

10.4 

178.6 

Socialist  Organizers 

s 

10.9 

171.0 

Factory  Superintendents 

S 

9.8 

186.7 

Bishops 

S 

10.6 

176.4 

Corporation  Directors 

5 

10.4 

179-8 

World's  Work  List 

s 

10.3 

182.2 

Sales  Managers 

s 

10. 1 

182.8 

Economists  and  Sociologists 

s 

10.8 

170.8 

Presidents  State  Bar 

5 

lo.S 

171S 

Presidents  Religious  Organizations 

5 

10.4 

169.8 

Mayors 

s 

lO.O 

176.9 

Labor  Organizers 

s 

8.2 

186.1 

Insurance  Presidents 

s 

9-7 

175.2 

Inventors 

s 

10.2 

169.4 

Roundhouse  Foremen 

5 

9.3 

177.0 

Anti-Saloon  League  Officials 

5 

9.2 

176.3 

Artists 

5 

lO.I 

165,7 

Authors 

s 

10,2 

158.0 

Chief  Justices  State  Courts 

s 

9.6 

169.0 

PubUshers 

s 

7-9 

171-9 

Manufacturers 

s 

9.0 

169.9 

Merchants 

5 

9.4 

163.7 

Psychologists 

s 

9-7 

155.3 

Philosophers 

5 

9.6 

158.4 

Lecturers 

s 

9.2 

162.3 

Musicians 

5 

5.6 

161.9 

Table  IH. 


HEIGHT  AND   WEIGHT  29 

superiority  in  weight  and  height  tend  to  favor  one  in 
the  contest  for  executive  positions.  If  the  tables  are 
examined,  then,  not  from  the  standpoint  of  eminence  but 
with  such  questions  as  these  in  mind.  Does  this  man's 
daily  work  require  him  to  meet  others  in  an  intimate, 
give-and-take  way?  How  many  people  must  he  deal 
with,  and  what  kind  of  people  are  they?  it  is  believed 
the  favorable  relationship  between  size  and  executive 
capacity  will  not  fail  to  impress  the  reader.  For  the 
purpose  of  such  examination  it  may  be  helpful  to  com- 
bine Tables  I  and  II  into  a  third  so  that  one  has  the 
data  on  both  height  and  weight  before  him  without  the 
necessity  of  turning  pages.     (See  Table  III.) 

EXECUTIVES   COMPARED   WITH  POLICYHOLDERS 

The  above  comparison  had  to  do  with  executives  and 
intellectuals,  but  it  would  also  be  interesting  to  know 
how  executives  compare  with  the  average  man,  the  so- 
called  man  on  the  street.  Unfortunately,  so  far  as  the 
author  is  aware,  no  satisfactory  data  concerning  the 
average  man  have  yet  been  collected  in  this  country. 
But  the  hfe  insurance  records  of  their  policyholders 
furnish  a  fairly  good  substitute,  at  least  the  best  that  is 
at  present  available. 

The  Association  of  Life  Insurance  Medical  Directors 
and  the  Actuarial  Society  of  America  have  recently  co- 
operated in  preparing  and  publishing  a  Medico- Actuarial 
Investigation,  from  which  source  have  been  drawn  the 
data  presented  here  in  graphic  form  as  a  comparison 
with  that  of  the  executives.  (See  Figure  2.)  This 
diagram  indicates  that  the  executives  considerably 
exceed  the  policyholders  in  height. 

The  distribution  of  the  executives  according  to  weight 
may  now  be  shown  in  graphic  form.     (See  Figure  3.) 


30 


THE  PHYSIQUE  OF  EXECUTIVES 


One  is  unable,  however,  in  this  case  to  compare  graphi- 
cally the  executives  with  the  policyholders,  since  in  the 
above  report  it  was  not  found  necessary  to  compile  a 
frequency  distribution  of  the  latter.^  But  as  it  stands 
the  graph  indicates  that  the  executives  most  common 
are  from  one  hundred  seventy  pounds  to  one  hundred 
eighty  pounds,  certainly  men  of  good  weight. 


sao 

200 

— 

— 

Exe 

sutlv 

58 

1 

\ 

/ 

\ 
» 

Poll 

syH 

Jlde: 

s 

DBG 
|140 
^120 

ftioo 

/ 

> 

> 

V 

/ 

r 

/ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

r 

V 

i 

1 

/ 

/ 

\ 

\ 

fc  flo 

1 

/ 

V 

♦ 

\ 

4D 

/ 

/ 

\ 

\ 

y 

f 

/ 

.*'■ 

1 

\ 

\ 

^ 

r 

•JZT. 

/ 

- 

N 

\ 

•■■■i 

X 



C2I    5;2    5:3    5:.4    5:5     5<6    5:7    5:8    5:9    1:10   5:11  6:0    6tl    6:2    6^3    6U    6c5    6<6    6c7 
Height  InJ'eet  and  Inches 
Fig.  2. — Executives  and  Policyholders  compared  in  Height.' 

*  Although  the  measurements  are  not  strictly  comparable,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  the  policyholders  aged  53  years  (approximately 
the  same  age  as  the  executives,  as  is  shown  on  frequency  table  in  Ap- 
pendix, although  for  the  executives  this  is  an  average  age,  some  being 
above,  some  under)  and  the  same  average  height  as  all  the  policyholders 
(58.5  in.)  are  164.5  lb.  weight.  In  comparison  with  this  figure,  the 
executives  would  be  over  sixteen  pounds  heavier. 

2  The  number  of  policyholders,  221,819,  has  been  reduced  propor- 
tionately to  the  same  as  that  of  the  leaders,  1037;  the  frequency  distri- 
bution being  of  course  kept  unchanged.  The  class  interval  being  one 
inch,  the  above  figures  on  height  should  be  followed  by  a  minus  sign 
which  has  unintentionally  been  omitted. 


POSITION  AND   PHYSIQUE 


31 


an 

39S 
IfiO 

1  '^ 

00 

25 

/ 

\ 

1 

X 

> 

\ 

\ 

/ 

. 

1 

\ 

s. 

/ 

s 

N 

y 

f 

\ 

y 

> 

\ 

110-    120-     130-     140^     150^ 


Fig.  3. 


160-     170       180       190 
Weight  in  Pctoids 
■Weight  of  Executives. 


aoo      210^     220      230      Wi 


The  class  interval  being  ten  pounds,  the  above  figures  on  weight  should  be 
followed  by  a  minus  sign  which  has  unintentionally  been  omitted. 


SIZE  AND  IMPORTANCE   OF   POSITION  HELD 

In  noting  the  favorable  relationship  between  these 
important  executives  and  their  size,  one  is  led  to  inquire 
if  there  might  not  possibly  je  some  connection  between 
the  executive's  physique,  as  measured  by  height  and 
weight,  and  the  importance  of  the  position  he  holds. 
Upon  this  question  some  interesting  data  have  been 
collected,  and  though  the  results  are  not  as  conclusive 
as  one  might  desire  (see  note  on  page  32),  they  are  still 
well  worth  consideration. 

Statistics  have  been  received  from  preachers  in 
small  towns  and  villages  where  the  total  amount  raised 
for  church  support  was  under  one  thousand  dollars 
annually ;  presidents  of  small  colleges  whose  enrollment 
was  under  two  hundred  and  fifty  and  annual  budget 


32 


THE   PHYSIQUE  OF   EXECUTIVES 


under  twelve  thousand  dollars;  principals  of  small 
public  schools  whose  monthly  salary  did  not  exceed 
seventy-five  dollars;  county  attorneys  from  six  differ- 
ent states;  salesmen  of  tj^ewriters;  and  station  agents 
in  towns  not  exceeding  five  hundred  inhabitants. 

In  no  way  is  it  to  be  implied  that  stigma  attaches  to 
any  of  these  men.  They  are  merely  filling  less  impor- 
tant positions  than  the  bishops,  university  presidents, 
city  school  superintendents,  and  others  with  whom  they 
are  compared.  Their  respective  heights  and  weights 
are  as  follows.  (See  Table  IV.)  In  each  case  the  larger 
position  is  held  by  the  larger  man. 


PHYSIQUE  IN  RELATION  TO  POSITION 


Class 

Height 

DlFFERJENCE 

Weight 

Difference 

1.  Bishops 

2.  Preachers  Small  Towns 

5 :  10.6 

5:    8.8 

1.8  in. 

176.4 
159.4 

17.0  lb. 

3.  University  Presidents 

4.  Presidents  Small  Colleges 

5 :  10.8 
5:    9.6 

1.2  in. 

181.6 
164.0 

17.6  lb. 

5.  City  School  Supts. 

6.  Principals  Small  Towns 

5 :  10.4 
5:    9.7 

.7  in. 

178.6 
IS7-6 

21.0  lb. 

7.  Presidents  State  Bar 

8.  County  Attorneys 

5 :  IO-5 
5 '  lo.o 

•sin. 

171.S 
162.4 

9.1  lb. 

9.  Sales  Managers 
10.   S^ilesmen 

S :  lo.i 
5:   9-1 

I.I  in. 

182.8 
157.0 

25.8  lb. 

11.  Railroad  Presidents 

12.  Station  Agents 

5 :  10.9 
5:    9.4 

1.5  in. 

186.3 
154.6 

31.71b. 

Table  IV. 


This  will  probably  be  as  far  as  the  average  reader's 
interest  will  impel  him  to   follow  these  statistics,  and 

*  The  averages  given  in  the  above  table  were  computed  directly  from 
the  original  schedules,  but  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  wish  to  apply 


EXERCISES 


33 


if  so  he  may  neglect  the  Appendix,  in  which  the  results 
are  analyzed  in  greater  detail,  and  instead  turn  at  once 
to  Chapter  IV,  The  Energizing  Level. 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  was  the  ascetic  ideal  of  medieval  times?    Point  out 
how  this  view  still  tends  to  color  present-day  thinking. 

2.  What  correlation  has  been  discovered  between  adenoids  and 
defective  teeth  and  eyes,  and  the  laggards  in  our  public  schools  ? 

3.  Discuss  the  significance  to  the  South  of  the  campaign 
against  the  hookworm. 

more  refined  methods  to  these  data  the  items  have  been  arranged  in 
frequency  tables  (class  intervals  i  in.  and  10  lbs.  respectively)  from 
which  the  foUowing  have  been  deduced  : 


Class 

Number 

Average 

St. 

Dip.  in 

Number 

Average 

St. 

DiF.  IN 

Number 

Cases 

Height 

Dev. 

Inches 

Cases 

Weight 

Dev. 

Pounds 

I 

81 

70.8 

2.4 

82 

178.2 

26.9 

2 

30 

69.2 

2.7 

1.6 

31 

160.5 

21. 1 

17.7 

3 

58 

71.2 

2.4 

61 

183.9 

23.0 

4 

26 

69.7 

1-7 

i.S 

26 

165.4 

25-5 

18.5 

5 

25 

70.3 

1.8 

26 

180.0 

22.2 

6 

28 

69.5 

3-0 

.8 

29 

159.5 

21.7 

20.5 

7 

38 

69.5 

2.7 

37 

173.I 

25.1 

8 

31 

69.1 

1.8 

.4 

31 

156.3 

14.1 

16.8 

9 

23 

69.5 

2.1 

23 

184.6 

19.7 

10 

50 

68.5 

2.1 

I.O 

54 

159.1 

19.7 

25.5 

II 

53 

71.3 

1.9 

54 

188.I 

23.4 

12 

30 

68.8 

2.4 

2.5 

29 

156.4 

19.8 

31.7 

Another  factor  to  be  considered  is  that  age  affects  weight,  and  since 
the  two  groups  compared  are  not  of  the  same  age  a  correction  should  be 
made  in  this  respect.  In  the  Medico- Actuarial  Mortality  Investigation 
the  data  are  presented  upon  which  a  rough  approximation  of  this  cor- 
rection may  be  made  (page  13).  The  younger  group  in  each  case  is  the 
second  and  as  weight  during  the  periods  under  consideration  increases 
with  age,  these  corrections  may  be  deducted  from  the  weight  differences 
shown  in  the  table:  Preachers  1.5  lb.,  presidents  colleges  .4  lb.,  princi- 
pals 6.8  lb.,  attorneys  4.1  lb.,  salesmen  5.9  lb.,  and  agents  8.1  lb.  These 
corrections  are  based  upon  the  average  age  as  shown  in  the  statistical 
summary,  pages  320-323,  and,  as  will  be  recognized  by  those  familiar 
with  more  refined  methods,  are  rough  approximations. 


34  THE   PHYSIQUE  OF  EXECUTIVES 

4.  What  is  the  aim  of  the  eugenic  movement?    By  what 
means  does  it  seek  to  attain  its  purpose? 

5.  Does  your  observation  of  executives  confirm  or  oppose  the 
various  conclusions  of  this  chapter? 

6.  Through  what  modifications  in  diet,  exercise,  bathing,  sleep, 
etc.,  have  you  been  able  to  increase  your  energy  ? 

READINGS 

Lecky,  History  of  European  Morals,  Vol.  II,  pp.  108-148. 
GuiiCK,  The  Efficient  Life^  or  ibid.,  Mind  and  Work, 


CHAPTER  IV 
The  Energizing  Level 

"The  plain  fact  remains  that  men  the  world  over  possess 
amounts  of  resource,  which  only  very  exceptional  individuals 
push  to  their  extremes  of  use."  —  William  James. 

I  The  statistics  presented  indicate  that  physically  the 
executive  is  an  exceptional  man.  The  problem  of 
controlling  others  may  seem  thereby  to  assume  a  fatal- 
istic aspect  —  for  who  by  being  anxious  can  add  a  cubit 
to  his  stature?  Yet  certain  men  of  small  stature  have 
proved  themselves  masterful;  the  founder  of  Method- 
ism a  little  man  barely  five  feet  six  inches  in  height, 
Henry  IV  of  France  scarcely  larger,  Alexander  and  Lord 
Nelson  possessing  no  towering  frames,  and  Napoleon, 
so  diminutive  that  in  showing  himself  to  his  solcflers  he 
chose  to  appear  on  horseback. 

But  of  these  same  men  biographers  have  used  the 
terms  "  always  going  somewhere,"  "  power  defied 
fatigue,"  "  energy  incarnate."  Small  of  stature  it  is 
true,  yet  they  were  human  dynamos.  Energy  is  the 
true  basis  of  leadership,  and  though  in  general  related 
to  size,  is  not  at  all  definitely  limited  by  it.  Large  men 
may  be  lethargic  and  small  men  dynamic.  Physical 
and  mental  energy  is  not  static  in  amount,  but  subject 
to  considerable  fluctuations. 

Individual  lives  constantly  evidence  such  fluctuations. 
Clive,  an  idler  and  a  scapegrace,  once  immersed  in  things 

35 


36  THE  ENERGIZING  LEVEL 

military  reveled  in  life.  Luther,  than  whom  no  reformers 
have  been  more  ardent,  ten  years  before  the  Reforma- 
tion, as  a  retiring  professor  pleaded  that  he  might  not 
be  forced  into  theological  teaching.  The  champion  of 
Islam,  Saladin,  earlier  in  life  loved  retreat  and  the  dis- 
course of  pious  men,  and  accepted  command,  as  he 
recounted  the  scene  in  later  years,  "  like  one  driven 
to  my  death."  An  idle,  dreamy,  slouching  roamer  was 
young  Patrick  Henry,  a  confirmed  failure  it  seemed,  until, 
having  espoused  the  law  and  being  roused  by  the  Parson's 
Case,  he  was  transformed  into  the  fiery  revolutionary 
orator.  Benjamin  Franklin  through  pressure  alone  was 
forced  from  the  life  of  social  ease  he  was  planning  at 
Philadelphia  and  by  the  Revolution  molded  into  an 
American  hero.  The  indolent  Webster  only  under 
unusual  stimulus  would  bestir  himself  and,  intellect  in 
full  play,  become  as  grand  and  effective  in  eloquence  as 
is  given  human  nature  to  be. 

Similar  instances  are  observed  again  and  again.  Who 
has  not  seen,  when  loved  ones  were  threatened,  frail 
women  becoming  able  to  bear  tremendous  burdens; 
in  the  teeth  of  the  storm  sailors  for  long  periods  defying 
danger  and  fatigue ;  in  the  political  campaign  tlie  vital- 
ity of  candidates  rising  with  the  strength  of  opposition ; 
or  in  life's  common  crises  ordinary  mortals  undergoing 
strains  it  later  unnerves  them  to  recall?  The  energy 
rate  does  fluctuate ;  occasions  make  the  weak  strong. 

Increased  effort,  it  may  be  claimed,  means  increased 
fatigue.  "  Everything  has  its  price  and  you  cannot 
cheat  nature  with  a  lead  nickel."  But  some  men  seem 
to  have  tapped  reservoirs  of  power.  They  have  ener- 
gized vigorously,  and  for  years,  and  apparently  have 
not  been  becalmed  in  the  fatigue  zone.  Do  they  not 
prove  that  the  energy  Hne  may  be  advanced  and  the 
fatigue  line  delayed,  and  that  within  this  zone  may 


INCREASING  ENERGY  37 

dwell  a  race  of  dynamic  men?  Life  begins  with  the 
acceleration  of  oxidation  in  the  egg,  and  in  this  increase 
lies  the  hope  of  more  life. 

Obviously,  this  is  a  matter  of  considerable  practical 
importance.  If  the  energizing  rate  can  be  doubled, 
for  instance,  —  a  possibiUty  confirmed  by  biographers, 
observation,  and  perhaps  through  the  reader's  personal 
experience  as  well,  —  it  is  making  two  men  live  where 
before  was  but  one.  The  means  for  realizing  this  higher 
level,  moreover,  lie  close  at  hand.  They  are  four  in 
number  and  will  be  discussed  in  turn. 


I.    A  STIMULATING  ENVIRONMENT 

Exceptional  achievement  follows  hard  upon  excep- 
tional stimuli ;  or  stated  in  terms  of  social  environment, 
results  from  unusual  incentive.  A  monotonous  environ- 
ment produces  listless  men;  but  a  stimulating  social 
system,  like  a  beautiful  landscape,  charms  through  its 
variety.  There  is  differentiation,  distinction.  Among 
these  distinctions,  first  place  may  be  accorded  wealth. 

Wealth,  —  In  primitive  society  private  property  can 
scarcely  he  said  to  exist.  What  little  the  group  pos- 
sessed, outside  of  ornaments,  weapons,  and  scanty  articles 
of  clothing,  was  communal.  But  with  the  domestication 
of  animals  there  became  something  individually  worth 
while  owning.  Seizure,  lordship,  revenue,  exchange, 
rise  of  the  state  and  economic  progress,  all  shaped  its 
development  from  age  to  age.  To-day  not  only  it  is 
the  basis  of  economic  Ufe,  but  its  influence  permeates 
the  social  system.     All  desire  to  own. '  1 

Added  satisfaction  comes  from  possessing  that  which 
is  denied  others.  In  the  primitive  forays,  booty  was 
not  divided  equally,  but  the  champion  received  his 
extra  share  of  plunder,  presents,  and  land.     "  There  is 


38  THE  ENERGIZING  LEVEL 

a  custom  prevailing  among  the  several  states,  as  well  as 
among  individuals,"  wrote  Tacitus  in  the  Germania, 
"  to  offer  voluntary  contribution  of  grain  and  cattle 
to  their  chiefs."  There  is  a  similar  custom  prevailing 
among  the  several  states  of  the  modem  world,  of  bestow- 
ing upon  their  "  chiefs  "  contributions  of  stocks  and 
bonds  and  real  estate  holdings.  A  satisfied  feeling 
ofsuperiority  over  the  humble  trudger  swells  the  self- 
regard  of  the  "  Silent  Six  "  owner ;  and  the  brownstone 
,c     front,  the  securities,  the  real  estate  holdings  gently  but 

^vj*      persistently  impress  upon  him.  Thou  hast  done  well. 

^•^  Authority.  —  That  all  men  are  equal  and  will  be 
kept  so  by  ideal  social  arrangements,  is  a  view  more 
enticing  than  well-founded  historically.  In  fact,  it  is 
'  only  among  the  most  degraded  tribes  of  mankind  that 
a  system  of  approximate  equality  is  found.  All  others 
exhibit  among  their  members  differentiation  and  sub- 
ordination, a  process  which,  expanding  with  civiliza- 
tion, in  church  and  state  and  industry  has  developed 
hierarchies  with  centers  of  authority  to  tempt  ambi- 
tious men.i  There  are  openings  on  ahead,  and  men 
love  to  exercise  authority. 

1  One  of  the  most  interesting  attempts  to  combat  this  universal 
tendency  is  found  in  the  history  of  English  trade-unions.  They  were 
democracies  of  "the  most  rudimentary  t3^e,  free  alike  from  perma- 
nently differentiated  officials,  executive  council,  or  representative  assem- 
bly. The  general  meeting  strove  itself  to  transact  all  the  business, 
and  grudgingly  delegated  any  of  its  functions  either  to  officers  or  to 
committees.  When  this  delegation  could  not  longer  be  avoided,  the 
expedients  of  rotation  and  short  periods  were  used  'to  prevent  impo- 
sition' or  any  undue  influence  by  particular  members.  In  this  earliest 
type  of  Trade  Union  democracy,  we  find,  in  fact,  the  most  childlike 
faith  not  only  that  'all  men  are  equal,'  but  also  that  'what  concerns  all 
should  be  decided  by  all.'"    Webb,  Industrial  Democracy,  8. 

But  growing  administrative  and  tactical  needs  demonstrated  the 
futility  of  the  old  system.  There  was  presented  a  choice  between  ineffi- 
ciency and  disintegration,  uncontrolled  dominance  of  a  personal  dicta- 
tor, or  an  expert  bureaucracy.  Trade-union  constitutions,  consequently, 
.have  undergone  a  revolution.    The  powers  of  the  general  secretary  have 


SOCIAL  INCENTIVES  39 

Social  Approval.  —  Society  has  drawn  up  an  elaborate 
scale  of  rewards  and  punishments,  the  skillful  use  of 
which  may  be  seen  even  in  primitive  groups.  So  highly 
approved  is  the  sea-lion  hunter  of  Kamchatka  that  many 
men  engage  in  the  dangerous  occupation  less  for  the 
sake  of  the  meat  than  in  order  to  gain  renown.  The 
picked  warriors  forming  the  advance  line  of  the  Ger- 
manic hosts  were  held  in  such  esteem  that,  says  Tacitus, 
the  "  epithet,  which  originally  indicated  number,  has, 
by  this  circumstance,  become  a  Title  of  Honour. '^  The 
social  position  of  a  noted  Polynesian  chief  was  so  exalted 
that  no  one  dared  to  walk  upright  in  the  village  when 
he  was  present,  but  all  had  to  crouch  down  and  crawl, 
and  no  cries  or  noise  were  permitted  in  his  hearing. 
Differing  from  the  Polynesian  attitude  merely  in  degree  \  u^ 
is  the  sentiment  expressed  in  the  old  English  couplet :.    .Jjy  Ijt*^ 

"  God  bless  the  squire  and  his  relations,  L/        '^      A 

Teach  us  to  know  our  proper  stations."         -^^    ^r        \/  ' 

In  civilized  Hfe  the  social  self  is  most  deftly  flattered 
and  coaxed.  As  Chve,  home  from  India,  "  had  scarcely 
set  foot  in  England  before  incense,  so  grateful  to  a  man 
when  offered  by  his  country  to  mark  that  country's 
sense  of  the  services  he  has  endeavored  to  render  her, 
impregnated  the  very  air  he  breathed.  The  Court  of 
Directors  entertained  him  at  a  semi-royal  public  dinner. 
They  presented  him  with  a  diamond-hilted  sword  of  the 
value  of  five  hundred  guineas.  They  solicited  his  ad- 
vice with  a  deference  which  is  only  manifested  by  city 
men  toward  one  whose  merits  have  already  forced 
themselves  to  the  loftiest  place  in  public  approval."  ^ 

been  magnified  and  consolidated,  a  score  of  offices  of  varying  power  have 
been  constructed,  until  nowhere  is  there  found  a  more  carefully  graded 
hierarchy  than  in  some  of  the  modem  "warring"  labor  camps. 
^  Malleson,  Live  of  Clive,  144-145. 


40  THE   ENERGIZING  LEVEL 

One  need  only  compare  the  later  prevailing  attitude 
of  Englishmen  toward  Clive  when  the  "  infamous  mon- 
ster "  was  on  trial,  to  appreciate  the  vast  range  of  social 
approval.  Cheering  throngs,  public  receptions,  crowded 
banquets,  messages  of  congratulation,  titles,  decora- 
tions, degrees,  interviews,  press  notices,  and  at  life's 
eventide  flags  at  half-mast,  conspicuous  sorrow,  statues, 
and  social  ancestor  worship  —  these  let  us  compare 
with  the  hoots  and  jeers,  the  triumph  of  enemies,  the 
loss  of  friends,  the  acid  editorial,  the  silent  contempt  or 
neglect,  and  the  grip  of  law.  Here  are  two  sets  of  influ- 
ences which,  human  nature  as  it  is,^  expand  or  shrivel 
the  personal  self,  social  approval  so  adjusted  that  it 
unceasingly  stimulates. 

To  those  who  believe  in  a  forward-moving  humanity, 
social  life  ever  expanding,  no  problem  perhaps  can  claim 
precedence  over  that  of  maintaining  and  perfecting  a 
stimulating  environment.  For  the  welfare  of  the  many 
is  bound  up  with  the  achievements  of  the  few,  and  the 
supply  of  progressive  geniuses  is  linked  up  with  the  de- 
mand for  their  services.  The  man  who  might  have 
evolved  a  new  transportation  system,  introduced  im- 
proved manufacturing  devices,  revolutionized  agricul- 
tural tillage,  replaced  outworn  customs  for  new  measures 
of  religion,  government,  or  social  relations,  may  never 
feel  the  stimulus  necessary  to  a  creative  genius  and  dies 
without  realizing  the  possibilities  of  his  nature. 

This  question  is  worth  the  serious  thought  of  those 

1  "I  believe,"  writes  Cooley,  regarding  the  influence  of  the  opinions 
of  others,  "that  with  all  normal  and  human  people  it  remains,  in  one 
form  or  another,  the  mainspring  of  endeavor  and  a  chief  interest  of  the 
imagination  throughout  life.  As  is  the  case  with  other  feelings,  we  do 
not  think  much  of  it  so  long  as  it  is  moderately  and  regularly  gratified. 
Many  people  of  balanced  mind  and  congenial  activity  scarcely  know 
that  they  care  what  others  think  of  them,  and  will  deny,  perhaps  with 
indignation,  that  such  care  is  an  important  factor  in  what  they  are  and 
do.    But  this  is  an  illusion."    Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  177. 


PROVIDING  INCENTIVES  41 

who  would  multiply  restrictions  upon  the  statute  books, 
oppose  a  business  merely  because  it  is  successful,  curb 
crudely  the  thought  of  those  who  dare  move  along 
untrodden  ways,  hound  the  doer  of  exceptional  things, 
and  provide  only  the  prize  which  all  men  may  grasp. 
Where  incentive  is  not,  pygmy  men  stand  at  the  tiller, 
and  they  drive  no  ship  through  prosperous  seas.  Now 
wealth,  positions  of  authority,  and  social  approval  indi- 
cate merely  three  of  the  many  measures  through  which 
a  stimulating  social  system  may  be  developed,  and  no 
legislator  nor  molder  of  public  policy  need  lack  practical 
means  for  supplying  incentive. 

The  result  of  increased  stimulation  is  an  intensifica- 
tion of  the  selective  process.  Many  will  be  called  that 
the  better  may  be  chosen.  Added  pressure  will  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  these  better  to  become  best. 
Leaders  will  be,  and  are,  "  forced  "  in  the  social  green- 
house. Men,  in  turn,  can  accommodate  themselves  to 
the  raised  levels.  Blood  is  supplied  more  copiously 
to  the  active  organs.  The  higher  psychic  centers  are 
better  nourished,  sensuality  is  lessened ;  in  energizing 
rate  the  usual  approaches  the  maximum.  With  the 
redistribution  of  his  vital  energies,  the  individual  comes 
to  live  in  the  upper  stories  of  his  house.  He  has  sur- 
passed his  old  self,  and  under  the  lure  of  incentive  been 
molded  into  a  super-man. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Is  a  stimulating  environment  compatible  with  socialism? 

2.  Which  is  preferable,  a  policy  of  regulated  monopoly  or 
enforced  competition?    An  income  tax  or  an  inheritance  tax? 

3.  What  stimulus  comes  from  friends?    Followers?    Enemies? 
Books?    Parents?     Teachers?    Be  specific. 

4.  To  what  positions  may  the  young  alderman  aspire?    The 
office  boy?    The  miner's  apprentice? 


42  THE   ENERGIZING  LEVEL 

5 .  Is  it  preferable  to  attend  an  urban  university  or  a  small- to wn 
college? 

6.  Is  more  expected  of  a  large-sized  man?    Comment. 

7.  Why  are  rival  candidates  usually  both  confident  of  victory 
in  the  coming  elections? 

READINGS 

Ward,  Applied  Sociology,  Ch.  IX. 
MuNSTERBERG,  The  Americans,  Ch.  XXTTT. 


//- 


CHAPTER  V 

The  Increase  of  Power 

"Having  been  a  rather  sickly  and  awkward  boy,  I  was  as  a 
young  man  at  first  both  nervous  and  distrustful  of  my  own  prow- 
ess. I  had  to  train  myself  painfully  and  laboriously,  not  merely 
as  regards  my  body,  but  as  regards  my  soul  and  spirit." 

—  Theodore  Roosevelt. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  noted  the  influence  of  a 
stimulating  environment.  It  is  now  our  purpose  to 
follow  this  stimulation  into  the  individual  mind;  for 
the  individual  under  the  stimulation  of  environment  is 
not  a  passive  factor,  nor  does  he,  as  an  inert  mechanism, 
merely  pass  on  the  force  which  has  been  communicated 
to  him.  The  organism  through  Hfe  is  active ;  the  body 
is  in  incessant  flux,  built  up  of  unstable  elements,  and 
the  brain  cells  must  transform  their  contents  into  energy 
of  some  sort.  The  restless  passion  for  reshaping  and 
subduing  which  Alexander  exhibited  is  true  of  most 
eager  spirits ;  activity  is  normal. 

n.    THE  LUMINOUS  IDEA 

Ideas  gained  from  the  environment  do  not  rest  in  the 
mind  as  so  much  baggage.  They  are  dynamic;  each 
one  of  them  tends  to  reaUze  itself  through  action,  and  it 
will  do  so  if  not  opposed.  Hence  an  idea  of  a  pecul- 
iarly compelling  sort  enlists  energetic  action  and  leads 
to  tangible  results.    Such  an  idea  we  may  say  is  luminous. 

43 


44  THE  INCREASE  OF  POWER 

It  shines  and  lures.  To  Napoleon  it  was  his  star  of 
destiny,  seen  on  all  great  occasions.  "  It  commands 
me  to  go  forward  and  is  a  constant  sign  of  my  good  for- 
tune, and  led  by  it,  I  behold  the  world  beneath  me  as  if 
I  were  being  carried  through  the  air."  To  Garibaldi  it 
was  Italy,  to  O'Connell  it  was  Ireland,  to  Pitt  it  was 
Parliament,  to  Webster  it  was  a  united  country,  to  Clay 
it  was  glowing  conception  of  national  destiny.  To  Lord 
Nelson,  it  was  the  service  of  king  and  country,  which, 
born  in  a  period  of  despair,  ever  afterwards  was  sus- 
pended, as  he  said,  "  before  my  mind's  eye  as  a  radiant 
orb  that  courted  me  onward  to  renown." 

Such  terms  as  "  our  country,"  "  democracy,"  "  equal- 
ity," "  freedom,"  "  social  justice,"  have  stimulated  gen- 
erations of  public  men,  and  without  doubt  will  continue 
so  to  do.  But  the  luminous  idea  itself  is  universal.  The 
merchant  finds  inspiration  in  business  elficiency,  the 
editor  in  the  reforms  he  espouses;  the  teacher  sees  in 
the  youths  before  him  splendid  men  of  to-morrow ;  and 
among  the  test  tubes  and  compound  microscopes  the  re- 
search worker  has  visions  of  germ  conquests.  The  lumi- 
nous idea  is  merely  one  with  power  to  draw  men  onward, 
and  each  may  possess  it. 

Its  Characteristics.  —  This  idea  should,  for  one  thing, 
be  (i)  Clear.  The  idea  which  has  a  power  within  the 
mind  is  one  sifted  from  the  maze  and  clearly  perceived. 
The  mental  process,  at  first  thought,  would  seem  difficult, 
since  evolving  central  notions  requires  a  high  order  of 
intelligence.  Yet  the  idea  need  only  seem  clear  to  its 
possessor.  Practically  any  mind,  by  ruminating  on 
the  materials  with  which  it  is  stocked,  yields  generaliza- 
tions later  held  as  self-evident  truths.  A  recent  presi- 
dential aspirant,  for  instance,  states  that "  after  twenty- 
five  years  study  I  find  the  supreme  issue,  involving  all 
others,  is  the  encroachment  of  the  powerful  few  upon 


THE  IMPULSE  OF  IDEAS  45 

the  rights  of  the  many  "  —  and  he  continues  to  wage 
war  with  this  as  a  slogan. 

It  may  be  pointed  out  that  because  in  these  times 
of  reconstruction  ministers  as  a  class  are  too  often  with- 
out the  clear  and  positive  idea,  hypocrisy  stalks  about 
in  many  a  declining  church.  Similarly  these  are  recon- 
structive days  in  politics,  education,  law,  and  business, 
which  means  that  here,  too,  is  the  unsettled  opinion. 
What  our  social  Ufe  most  needs  is  a  more  clearly  defined 
set  of  values,  with  which,  forward  facing  and  positive, 
men  may  transact  life's  business  with  vigor. 

(2)  Narrow.  Every  fact  indeed  is  connected  up 
with  all  other  facts;  but  only  the  thinker  threads  his 
way  through  the  complexities  in  which  each  particu- 
lar problem  is  immersed.  The  executive  type  ignores 
the  qualifications,  brushes  complexities  aside  as  "  aca- 
demic " ;  he  is  "  practical,"  trusts  in  "  common  sense,'' 
and  without  further  loss  of  time  sets  about  focusing 
effort  upon  the  "  paramount  issue." 

The  idea  thus  held  may  be  distorted,  it  is  true,  but  it 
brings  results.  It  has  been  said  that  Thomas  Jefferson 
was  egotistical  and  confident  because  he  had  convinced 
himself  that  he  was  a  genuine  and  successful  benefactor 
of  mankind,  —  the  teacher  of  a  great  gospel  that,  like 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  embodied  all  the  science 
of  government  and  human  morality.  But  Jefferson 
held  an  idea  whi^  enabled  him  to  accomplish. 

(3)  Interestimg.^Mi^^^tudiQS  of  ideas  press  for  rec- 
ognition ;  but  those  of  interest  alone  are  welcomed,  and 
of  these  only  the  most  interesting  write  the  plan  book  of 
life.  Of  the  remainder,  some  are  rendered  subordinate ; 
most  are  suppressed  and,  so  far  as  motivation  is  con- 
cerned, become  practically  non-existent.  But  the  idea 
selected  and  elevated  over  others,  whether  it  be  "  United 
Italy,"  a  presidency,  the  home  on  the  hillside,  "  Social 


i 


46  THE  INCREASE  OF  POWER 

Justice,"  or  what  not,  is  able  to  stir  consciousness  and 
provides  the  onward  impulse. 

Us  Power.  —  Just  as  a  medical  student  courts  the 
society  of  physicians  and  the  young  lawyer  seeks  his 
kind,  so  the  leader  immerses  himself  in  the  atmosphere 
of  his  major  theme.  This  to  him  is  both  necessary  and 
easy;  necessary,  because  complexities  and  frequent 
change  of  policy  spell  confusion  among  followers,  and 
easy,  because,  once  provided  with  a  luminous  idea,  these 
followers  reflect  it  upon  the  leader  until,  as  in  the  solar 
motor,  he  is  the  objective  upon  which  play  a  thousand 
beams.  AccompUshment  is  then  powerfully  stimulated. 
This  "  led  by  a  star  of  destiny,''  this  rapture  over  work, 
this  faith  in  ultimate  victory,  favorably  affects  the 
jdscera.  Brain,  heart,  and  stomach  receive  the  effi- 
ciency stimulus.  "  I  have,  indeed,"  said  Daniel 
O'Connell,  "a  glowing  and  —  if  I  may  use  the  expres- 
sion —  an  entl\usiastic  ambition,  which  converts  every 
toil  into  a  pleasure,  and  every  study  into  an  amuse- 
ment." 

This  idea,  moreover,  is  kept  gradually  advancing. 
Mohammed's  dream  expalided  with  his  fortunes,  some- 
thing true,  no  doubt,  of  many  men.»  Yet  there  are  those 
who,  in  a  small  environm^t,  Vin  the  "  big^'  victory, 
reaUze  the  idea,  are^iljjed  tosleecSby  me  plaudits  of  the 
circumscribed,  and  thu^^jt^eA  spend  their  hfe  in  a  cove. 
It  is  the  exceplnonal  i^j^J&b^  ^jtf^ .  local  victory, 
spurns  his  neighbors''  chlaW(fj^i  ■^((plants  his  idea 
where  it  dominates  a  wider  scope?  ^ 

ni.    THE.  WILL  IN  ACTION 

A  luminous  idea  normally  eAlist^  the  will,  since 
volition,  as  has  been  pointed  out 'by  James,  in  its  last 
analysis  consists  simply  in  voluntary  attention  to  an 


ROUSING  THE  WILL  47 

idea.  Alexander  fastened  his  mind  upon  the  result 
desired  and,  as  by  autosuggestion,  clearly  saw  it  as  an 
accomplished  reality;  Cromwell  was  almost  fatalistic 
in  his  belief  that  "  (k>d's  cause  "  would  conquer.  "  His 
Majesty,"  wrote  Stenbach  of  Charles  XII,  "seems  to 
receive  his  inspiration  from  God  alone;  and  has  got 
the  idea  of  a  war  so  firmly  fixed  in  his  head  that  he  can 
attend  to  nothing  else."  Need  we  wonder  that  such 
men  are  characterized  by  strong  wills?  It  would  be 
queer  indeed  were  such  not  the  case. 

Within  the  organism  exist  stores  of  energy  ordinarily 
untouched  because  not  reached  by  the  usual  nerve  stim- 
uli. But  increased  stimulation  unlocks  these  stores, 
the  will  in  this  way  being  able  to  develop  power.  The 
means  for  securing  this  increased  power  may  be  stated 
as  follows  : 

(i)  The  Set  Task.  A  certain  task  set  for  per- 
formance becomes  in  turn  the  stimulus  for  its  accom- 
plishment. The  ancient  Teutons,  amid  song  and  drink, 
boasted  of  forthcoming  deeds.  The  Catti,  tribesmen 
of  Gaul,  by  leaving  hair  and  beard  uncut  until  after 
the  death  of  an  enemy,  possessed,  Tacitus  says,  a  "  prom- 
ise of  heroic  action."  Wolfe  disgusted  the  British  states- 
men by  boasts  of  what  victories  would  follow  his  com- 
mand in  America ;  and  then  won  those  victories.  John 
Quincy  Adams,  one  of  the  most  lonely  and  desolate 
of  the  great  men  of  history,  set  for  himself  the  most 
exacting  tasks,  and  actually  toward  the  close  of  his 
term  he  spoke  of  his  trying,  daily  routine  as  constituting 
a  very  agreeable  life.  These  set  tasks,  this  being  on  rec- 
ord before  others  and  making  promises  to  oneself  of 
what  shall  be  done,  have  a  result-getting  value.  They 
stiffen  the  will. 

(2)  The  Blocked  Retreat,  No  wild  animal  puts 
forth  supreme  effort  until  brought  to  bay  by  the  snarl- 


48  THE  INCREASE  OF  POWER 

ing  pack.  Nor  does  any  man  push  his  task  with  maxi- 
mum energy  while  one  eye  surveys  the  avenues  of  re- 
treat. But  with  retreat  blocked  and  back  to  wall,  men 
have  so  wrought  that  the  accomplishment,  once  passed, 
fills  them  with  amazement.  The  assistant,  upon  the 
death  of  the  great  divine,  is  compelled  to  ascend  the 
pulpit ;  the  subordinate  in  the  factory  is  compelled  to 
assume  large  duties  when  the  head  official  severs  his  con- 
nection with  the  firm.  Pulpit  and  office  chair,  to  the 
young  men  upon  whom  the  new  responsibilities  rest, 
become  a  forcing  house  for  power.  It  is  because  unusual 
demands  are  thus  met  by  a  welling  up  of  power  from 
within  that  "  shoulder  responsibility  "  is  a  good  motto 
and  "  burn  your  bridges  behind  you  ''  a  means  toward 
greater  accomplishment. 

(3)  Faith  in  Self.  Men  of  capacity  often  have  that 
sublime  faith  in  self  which  in  little  minds  is  mere  arro- 
gance. "  I  am  sure  that  I  can  save  this  country,"  said 
the  Earl  of  Chatham,  "  and  that  nobody  else  can." 
His  son  possessed  a  like  confidence :  ^'  I  place  much 
dependence  on  my  new  colleagues,"  said  Pitt ;  "  I  place 
still  more  dependence  upon  myself." 

Witness  also  Bismarck  at  thirty-six,  seemingly  undip- 
lomatic and  unskilled,  offering  to  undertake  "  anything 
which  the  King  felt  strong  enough  to  propose  to  him  " ; 
Mohammed,  branded  as  a  pretender  and  threatened  with 
death,  declaring  "  though  they  should  array  the  sun 
against  me  on  my  right  hand  and  the  moon  on  my  left, 
yet  until  God  should  command  me  or  should  take  me 
hence,  would  I  not  depart  from  my  purpose  "  ;  Louis  XIV, 
for  a  time  after  the  peace  of  Nimwegen,  believing  he  was 
permitted  by  God  to  undertake  any  scheme  no  matter 
how  daring ;  or  Webster's  public  declaration,  "  I  am 
quite  aware  that  I  am  a  man  of  considerable  public 
importance,  not  only  within  the  boundaries  of  Massa-' 


IMPULSIVENESS  49 

chusetts,  but  without  her  boundaries,  and  throughout 
the  length  and  breadth  of  this  continent." 

Such  faith  in  self,  a  compound  of  strong  desire  and 
belief  in  one's  abiUty  to  attain  it,  makes  men  of  iron 
resolution. 

(4)  The  Impulsive  Temperament.  The  tendency  is 
for  action  to  follow  upon  desire  in  a  simple  and  ready 
sequence.  But  some  natures  are  so  apprehensive  con- 
cerning all  possible  contingencies  and  consequences 
that  the  will  becomes  sicklied  over  with  the  pale  cast  of 
thought. 

"  The  centipede  was  happy  quite 

Uhtil  the  toad  for  fun 
Said,  Tray,  which  leg  goes  after  which?* 

Which  worked  her  soul  to  such  a  pitch 
She  lay  distracted  in  the  ditch, 

Considering  how  to  run." 

Successful  executives  ordinarily  are  not  typified  by 
the  musing  Hamlet.  The  impulsive  Moody,  the  free- 
dom-loving, unchastened  and  romantic  Garibaldi,  the 
jovial  William  the  Silent,  the  Cromwell  who  impressed 
strangers  as  if  he  "  hath  taken  a  bit  of  wine  too  much," 
the  cheery,  exuberant  Clay,  the  strenuous  Roosevelt, 
represent  action,  not  the  obstructed  will.  They  have 
not  inhibited  decision  in  order  that  the  intellect  might 
wander  in  a  maze  of  speculation,  but  rather  their  wills 
react  healthily.  As  Lord  Palmerston  wrote,  apparently 
explaining  his  own  procedure:  "  I  believe  weakness  and 
irresolution  are,  on  the  whole,  the  worst  faults  that 
statesmen  can  have.  A  man  of  energy  may  make  a  wrong 
decision,  but,  like  a  strong  horse  that  carries  you  rashly 
into  a  quagmire,  he  brings  you  by  his  sturdiness  out  on 
the  other  side." 

(5)  Intensity  of  Conviction.    It  is  one  thing  to  yield 


so  THE  INCREASE  OF   POWER 

intellectual  assent  and  another  to  believe  with  convic- 
tion. In  the  latter,  mere  assent  is  intensified  by  emo- 
tion. "  A  hot  flash  seems  to  burn  across  the  brain,"  as 
Bagehot  puts  it.  "  Men  in  these  intense  states  of  mind 
have  altered  all  history,  changed  for  better  or  worse  the 
creed  of  myriads,  and  desolated  or  redeemed  provinces 
and  ages.  Nor  is  this  intensity  a  sign  of  truth,  for  it 
is  precisely  strongest  in  those  points  in  which  men  differ 
most  from  each  other.  John  Knox  felt  it  in  his  anti- 
Catholicism,  Ignatius  Loyola  in  his  anti-Protestantism ; 
and  both,  I  suppose,  felt  it  as  much  as  it  is  possible  to 
feel  it.  .  .  . 

"  We  should  utilize  this  intense  emotion  of  convic- 
tion as  far  as  we  can.  Dry  minds,  which  give  an  in- 
tellectual *  assent '  to  conclusions,  which  feel  no  strong 
glow  of  faith  in  them,  often  do  not  know  what  their 
opinions  are ;  they  have  every  day  to  go  over  the  argu- 
ments again,  or  to  refer  to  a  notebook  to  know  what 
they  beheve;  but  intense  convictions  make  a  memory 
for  themselves,  and  if  they  can  be  kept  to  the  truths  of 
which  there  is  good  evidence,  they  give  a  readiness  of 
intellect,  a  confidence  in  action,  a  consistency  in  char- 
acter, which  are  not  to  be  had  without  them."  ^ 

Opportunities  for  setting  tasks,  cutting  off  retreats, 
holding  faith  in  self,  unclamping  the  will,  and  beheving 
with  intensity,  come  to  all  of  us.  When  such  opportuni- 
ties are  utiUzed,  as  in  some  measure  at  least  may  readily 
be  done,  the  will  becomes  an  instrument  productive  of 
power. 

IV.    INFLUENCE   OF  EMOTION 

The  influence  of  emotion,  coming  now  to  the  last  of 
the  four  factors  upon  which  power  depends,  is  a  matter 
of  common  observation.     The  train  wreck,  the  great 
^Religious  and  Metaphysical  Essays,  II,  326-338,  passim. 


THE  ATMOSPHERE  OF  POWER  51 

fire,  the  attack  on  national  honor,  temporarily  at  least 
change  mediocres  into  heroes.  The  experience  of  An- 
toine  Gerle  is  typical.  A  poor  monk  secluded  in  a 
monastery  for  nearly  forty  years,  he  quite  lost  his  head 
in  the  turmoil  of  Paris,  and,  half-mad  with  excitement, 
became  one  of  the  leading  orators  of  the  Jacobin  Club. 
Vergniaud,  once  too  indolent  to  win  high  honors  in 
school,  a  writer  of  poetry  and  social  devotee  when  he 
should  have  prosecuted  his  divinity  studies,  a  civil 
service  appointee  who  quit  his  post  because  its  drudgery 
disgusted  him,  having  similarly  had  his  imagination 
fired  by  the  Revolution,  became  the  great  orator  of  the 
Jacobin  party  and  took  an  infinity  of  trouble  over  his 
speeches.  The  indolent  Danton  could,  as  well,  display 
enormous  energy  at  a  crisis,  and  he  did  so  during  the 
early  days  of  June,  1793.  Because  of  emotional  power 
thus  engendered  it  was  p)ossible  for  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  France  to  be  directed  by  men  hitherto 
unknown. 

More  so  than  other  men,  the  leader  is  in  position  to 
derive  power  through  the  emotions,  the  chief  reasons 
perhaps  for  his  superior  opportunity  being  as  follows: 

(i)  Constructiveness  and  Self-assertion.  The  organ- 
ism has  munerous  instincts,  the  satisfaction  of  which 
causes  pleasure  and  their  obstruction  pain,  and  whose 
promptings  consequently  constitute  a  never  ceasing 
driving  force.  These  instincts,  moreover,  being  plastic, 
are  modifiable.  Hence  in  their  waxing  or  waning  they 
may  assume  dilBferent  motivation  values. 

Now  management  as  an  experience  thoroughly  stim- 
ulates two  instincts,  constructiveness  and  self-assertion. 
Men  love  to  feel  themselves  a  cause,  to  see  a  new  product 
shaped  under  their  direction;  and  they  draw  pleasure 
from  rising  triumphant  over  more  and  more  obstacles, 
from    extending    the    dominant    personality    over    yet 


52  THE   INCREASE  OF  POWER 

vaster  ranges  of  control.  As  was  true  of  our  recent 
strenuous  President,  most  men's  blood  tingles  when 
the  reins  of  leadership  touch  their  hands. 

(2)  The  Focus  of  Emotion.  A  leader  is  apt  to  be 
immersed  in  an  emotion  stirred  atmosphere.  But  more 
than  this,  because  of  the  masses'  tendency  to  think  in 
simple  terms  and  concentrate  their  opinions  of  move- 
ments into  estimates  of  one  person,  he  occupies  a  focal 
point.  However  praiseworthy  the  private  is  conceded 
to  be,  pubhc  opinion  lauds  the  victorious  general.  The 
people  of  a  city  are  easily  kept  interested  in  their  mayor ; 
the  alderman  does  not  excite  popular  fancy.  In  this 
way,  whatever  of  censure  or  approval  is  visited  upon  the 
organization  falls  upon  its  chief  with  redoubled  effect. 

(3)  Attitudes  of  Power.  Every  emotion  has  a  phys- 
ical resultant ;  but  similarly  has  every  movement  its 
mental  correlate.  "  I  have  often  observed,"  wrote 
Burke,  "  that,  on  mimicking  the  looks  and  gestures  of 
angry,  or  placid,  or  frightened,  or  daring  men,  I  have 
involuntarily  found  my  mind  turned  to  that  passion 
whose  appearance  I  strove  to  imitate;  nay,  I  am  con- 
vinced H  is  hard  to  avoid  it,  though  one  strove  to  sepa- 
rate the  passion  from  its  corresponding  gestures."  ^ 
According  to  this  point  of  view,  the  bodily  manifesta- 
tion causes  the  corresponding  emotion.  Look  brave 
and  you  feel  brave ;  assume  the  posture  of  grief  and 
that  emotion  will  soon  steal  upon  you.^ 

Now  a  leader  is  constantly  assuming  attitudes  of  power. 
He  stands  prominently  before  followers :  Napoleon  on 
the  hillock,  Burke  in  Parliament,  Bryan  on  the  Chau- 
tauqua  platform.  His  fist  it  is  which  thumps  the  chair- 
man's stand,  his  chest  which  throws  the  resonant  voice 
into  the  far  confines  of  the  great  hall,  his  muscles  which 

1  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  cited  by  James,  Psychology,  II,  464. 
«  Cf.  James,  ibid.,  Ch.  XXV. 


EFFORT  UNCEASING  S3 

assume  the  "  come-on-boys "  position.  From  these 
positive  bodily  attitudes  he  draws  emotional  power, 
in  this  way  realizing  in  daily  practice  that  unto  him 
that  hath  it  shall  be  given. 

POWER   DEVELOPED 

Power,  we  may  now  conclude,  is  neither  fixed  nor 
inherent,  but  is  fluctuating  and  can  be  developed.  Its 
basis  is  revealed  in  the  view  that  the  body  is  a  chemical 
machine ;  its  amount  depends  in  part  upQn..lli£_§ize  of 
this  chemical  rnachine  and  in  part  upon  the  efficiency 
with  which  it^ogerates.  This  operation  in  turn  is  suB^ 
ject  to  acceleration,  the  increased  niQtiva.tion  being 
due  to  a  stimulating  environment,  the  luminous  idea, 
the  will,  and  the  emotions.  These  four  constitute  what 
may~be  termed  an  atmosphere  of  power,  men  momen- 
tarily being  caught  up  into  it,  and  while  thus  influenced 
surpassing  their  ordinary  selves.  But  these  flashes  of 
power  may  be  made  permanent  levels  of  accomplish- 
ment, and  from  their  old  selves  men  rise  to  a  new  plane 
of  being.i 

EXERCISES 

1.  How  develop  and  train  the  will?     (James,  Talks  to  Teachers 
on  Psychology,  Ch.  XV.) 

2.  Contrast  in  specific  terms  Hamlet  with  some  successful 
executive. 


^  This  would  mean,  during  working  hours,  effort  without  ceasing,  a 
prospect  directly  opposed  to  much  current  talk  of  overwork,  vacations, 
nervousness,  and  other  mental  disorders.  Nevertheless  the  opinion  of 
psychologists  is  shifting  toward  the  view  that  such  effort  is  not  only 
possible,  but  can  be  continued  without  injury. 

"The  more  the  mind  does,"  said  William  James,  "the  more  it  can 
do." 

"In  my  practice  as  physician  in  nervous  and  mental  diseases,"  ob- 
serves Dr.  Boris  Sidis,  "I  can  say  without  hesitation  that  I  have  not 


54  THE  INCREASE  OF  POWER 

3.  What  causes  periods  of  business  uncertainty?  How  secure 
religious  positiveness  ? 

4.  In  what  fact  does  the  value  of  Christian  Science  consist  ? 

5.  In  maintaining  the  positive  emotional  state  discuss  the 
value  of  humor.  Freedom.  The  evaluating  of  critics.  Empha- 
sizing success  and  minimizing  failure.  Inspirational  atmosphere. 
Life  philosophies. 

6.  Outline  a  practical  plan  for  increasing  power. 

READINGS 

James,  Memories  and  Studies,  Ch.  X. 

Roosevelt,  Autobiography ,  Ch.  II.  {Outlook,  March  22,  1913, 
660-674.) 

met  a  single  case  of  nervous  or  mental  trouble  caused  by  too  much 
thinking  or  overstudy.  What  produces  nervousness  is  worry,  emotional 
excitement,  and  lack  of  interest  in  the  work." 

"My  rules  for  being  able  to  work  all  the  time,"  states  Professor 
Thorndyke,  "are: 

"Sleep  all  that  is  possible. 

"  Get  rid  of  all  physical  ills. 

"When  one  interest  flags,  find  a  new  one. 

"  Always  keep  on  hand  a  supply  of  motives  or  desires. 

"  Never  learn  by  a  roundabout  method  what  can  be  learned  directly. 

"  Never  allow  the  mind  to  dwell  on  a  subject  that  may  not  be  useful. 

"  Waste  no  effort.  Never  worry.  Never  become  excited  unneces- 
sarily. 

"  Think  out  what  should  be  done  and  then  do  it  without  talking  about  it. 

"In  a  word,"  he  concludes, "  the  whole  doctrine  is :  Interest  and  motive 
for  efficiency,  and  for  protection  sleep." 


CHAPTER  VI 

Effective  Effort 

"Get  your  principles  right;   the  rest  is  a  matter  of  detail." 

—  Napoleon. 

The  discussion  of  individuality  to  this  point  has 
concerned  itself  chiefly  with  the  energy  element.  It  is 
now  pertinent  to  consider  the  use  to  which  this  energy 
shall  be  put.  For  only  power  effectively  directed  brings 
results ;  and  managers  must  meet  the  result  test.  Work, 
hustle,  get  things  done  —  this  has  been  the  ideal  of  the 
American  executive.  But  mere  hustling  means  waste ; 
things  "  done  "  are  often  done  wrong.  Hence  the  era 
of  crude  activity  is  being  superseded  by  a  system  of 
effectiveness  in  effort. 

POWER  AS  NEEDED 

This  ideal  of  effectiveness  applies  first  to  the  develop- 
ment of  power  itself.  It  is  evident  that  energy  is  not 
fixed  in  quantity,  but  fluctuating,  and  that  the  indi- 
vidual, less  completely,  it  is  true,  but  still  somewhat  like 
the  mechanical  engineer,  can  control  the  power  output. 
But  what  fireman  would  turn  on  forced  draft  and  in- 
crease stoking  when  his  engine  had  no  load?  Steam 
boilers  work  at  continuous  maximum  capacity  only 
when  under  continuous  maximum  load.  Yet  have  we  not 
seen  men  —  ourselves  perhaps  guilty  as  well  —  running 
their  bodily  engines  at  full  speed  regardless  of  the  lo^d  ? 

55 


56  EFFECTIVE  EFFORT 

The  mere  prospect  of  a  task  too  often  serves  as  an  order 
"  full  steam  ahead."  Unresisted,  this  order  dissipates 
one's  energies  before  the  race  is  on. 

Power,  to  the  contrary,  may  and  should  be  developed 
as  needed.  The  dashing  Garibaldi,  if  the  encampment 
was  far  from  the  scene  of  danger,  lay  stretched  out  under 
his  tent;  in  the  Pullman  which  carried  him  to  the  Chicago 
convention  of  191 2  Colonel  Roosevelt  retired  early ; 
during  the  Baltimore  convention,  when  the  deadlock 
and  long  hours  had  thrown  men  into  high  tension,  Bryan 
came  to  his  room,  threw  off  his  coat,  and,  oblivious  to 
the  bustle  of  delegates  around  him,  slept  soundly  for  an 
hour.  It  is  in  such  control  that  the  first  directive 
requirement  is  met,  that  power  he  developed  as  needed} 

ALERTNESS 

The  outside  world  plays  upon  men's  minds  incessantly, 
sending  its  stimulations  through  their  sense  organs. 
But  marked  difference  is  shown  in  responding  to  these 
stimulations;  though  they  travel  the  same  road  to- 
gether men  do  not  all  see  the  same  things.  That  member 
of  a  group  who  reacts  most  advantageously  is  better 

*  In  this  connection  the  qualitative  element  should  be  noted.  Says 
James:  "The  words  'energy'  and  'maximum'  may  easily  suggest  only 
quantity  to  the  reader's  mind,  whereas  in  measuring  the  human  energies 
of  which  I  speak,  qualities  as  well  as  quantities  have  to  be  taken  into 
accoimt.  Every  one  feels  that  his  total  power  rises  when  he  passes  to  a 
higher  qualitative  level  of^  life.  .  .  .  Writing  is  higher  than  walking, 
thinking  is  higher  than  writing,  deciding  'no'  higher  than  deciding  'yes' 
—  at  least  the  man  who  passes  from  one  of  these  activities  to  another  will 
usually  say  that  each  later  one  involves  a  greater  element  of  inner  work 
than  the  earlier  one,  even  though  the  total  heat  given  out  or  the  foot- 
pounds expended  by  the  organism  may  be  less  .  ,  .  inner  work,  though 
it  so  often  reinforces  outer  work,  quite  as  often  means  its  arrest.  To 
reflex,  to  say  to  ourselves  (with  the '  new  thoughters ') ,  *  Peace  !  be  still ! ' 
is  sometimes  a  great  achievement  of  inner  work."  Memories  and  Studies, 
234-235  passim. 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOMENT  57 

able  to  direct  the  others  and  thus  becomes  a  leader 
because  of  quicker  response  to  stimuli.  As  Henry  IV 
burst  forth  when  he  received  threat  of  war  from  the 
Spanish  king,  "  Let  your  master  have  a  care,  I  should 
be  in  the  saddle  before  his  foot  touched  the  stirrup.'* 
While  the  significance  of  a  situation  is  slowly  dawning 
upon  an  ordinary  mind,  the  alert  intellect  has  already 
seized  it  at  the  psychological  moment.  "  Fortune," 
declared  Cortes,  "  favors  the  daring."  The  Alexanders 
set  too  fast  a  pace  for  the  Dariuses. 

This  quick  response  to  stimuH  permits  dispatch.  With 
big  enterprises  to  manage,  there  is  distinct  advantage 
in  the  mind  which  comprehends  quickly  and  then 
reacts  with  vigor.  Such  mental  organization  insures 
volume  in  accomplishment,  gives  up-to-dateness,  and 
outdistances  competitors.^ 

It  also  makes  for  effective  expenditure.  In  the  control 
of  men  there  is  what  may  be  termed  the  psychological 
moment,  a  tide  which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to 
results.  The  salesman  is  alert  to  it,  shrewdly  timing 
his  command,  "  Sign  right  here  " ;  the  orator  in  his 
dramatic  climaxes,  the  strategist  in  his  campaign  plans, 
the  foreman  in  punishing  the  rule  breaker,  each  moves 
in  accordance  with  the  same  principle.  The  executive 
spends  no  energy  in  a  losing  fight,  but  like  a  wise  hus- 
bandman harvests  results  when  the  grain  is  ripe. 

The  quickness  of  response,  in  addition,  permits  fuller 
utilization  of  opportunities.  Opportunities  come  not 
singly  but  in  series,  —  the  old  motto  notwithstanding, 
—  and  the  great  man  is  he  who  deftly  turns  every  off er- 

1  E.  H.  Harriman  as  chairman  conducted  the  most  rapid-fire  meet- 
ings ever  held  in  the  financial  district.  Discussion,  if  ventured  at  all, 
usually  ended  with :  "Oh,  I  knew  all  about  that.  It's  all  right.  Let's 
put  it  through!"  And  through  it  went.  A  member  of  the  executive 
committee  once  timed  the  proceedings  and  found  that  it  took  thirty-six 
seconds  to  appropriate  six  millions  for  equipment. 


58  EFFECTIVE  EFFORT 

ing  into  results  for  his  own.  In  .factory  and  counting 
house,  quite  as  truly  as  on  gridiron  or  diamond,  it 
seems  the  most  successful  men  make  the  promptest 
use  of  the  ideas  which  come  to  them. 


ORIGINALITY 

New  ideas  are  rare,  the  development  of  one  general- 
ization, it  is  said,  being  sufficient  to  make  a  man  famous 
in  science.  Yet  this  is  a  changing  and  progressive  world ; 
a  manager  is  consequently  forced  to  venture  upon  the 
unknown,  and  in  making  new  adjustments  show  origi- 
nality.   Whence  is  derived  this  originality? 

It  is,  for  one  thing,  natural.  In  the  facts  of  birth  and 
variation,  originality  is  to  be  expected.  It  would  be 
realized  more  often,  without  doubt,  were  it  not  for  the 
rigid  insistence  upon  conformity  practiced  by  home, 
church,  and  school.  "  I  think  I  was  as  well  brought  up 
as  most  children,"  said  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  "  because 
I  was  let  alone."  May  we  not  say  he  was  better  brought 
up  than  most  children,  and  that  in  a  wider  adoption  of 
this  poHcy  originaUty  would  flourish? 

But  shades  of  the  social-convention  prison  house 
usually  inclose  the  growing  boy.  His  spontaneity  is 
chilled  or  rudely  repressed,  his  intelUgence  fed  upon 
materials  unrelated  to  his  own  Hfe  and  hence  lacking 
in  vitality.  Does  it  not  seem  culpable,  for  instance, 
that  much  of  our  meager  stock  of  developmental  methods 
should  have  been  worked  out  in  schools  for  imbeciles? 

Yet  originality  is  a  most  precious  possession ;  regarded 
as  natural,  some  seem  to  retain  it  by  escaping  the  usual 
training,  resisting  the  cramp  of  routine,  or  insisting  upon 
self-assertion. 

Much  depends  also  upon  openness  to  impressions. 
Early  in  his  railroading  career  young    Cassatt,   late 


GETTING  NEW  IDEAS  59 

president  of  the  Pennsylvania  system,  made  it  his 
business  to  be  the  most  approachable  of  division  super- 
intendents. No  man  was  ever  more  sought  after  by 
cranks  and  geniuses  alike,  with  their  models  of  auto- 
matic couplers,  sleeping  cars,  tanking  and  signaling 
systems.  He  was  willing  to  seek  through  chaff  to  find 
wheat.  He  made  it  a  rule,  moreover,  to  be  even  more 
accessible  to  his  own  petty  employees.  Brakemen, 
switch  tenders,  trackmen,  all  found  the  door  to  his  pri- 
vate office  open,  and  their  practical  suggestions  enabled 
many  an  innovation  to  reach  its  highest  value. 

Here  is  a  method  which  most  executives  adapt  to  fit 
their  needs.  On  every  hand  are  ideas,  plans,  methods, 
which  these  men  quickly  recognize  of  value;  their 
openness  of  mind  yields  them  with  little  cost  a  rich  har- 
vest. 

A  more  positive  plan  consists  in  the  active  seeking  of 
new  ideas.  A  noted  advertising  man  —  advertising  of 
all  businesses  being  one  which  demands  originality 
—  cHps  every  illustration  which  contains  a  figure,  a 
pose,  a  layout,  or  an  idea  of  any  kind  that  he  finds 
stimulating.  These  nuggets  of  thought,  embryo  ideas, 
brilliant  quotations  and  epigrams,  bright  articles, 
striking  phrases,  clever  write-ups,  he  classifies  and  pastes 
on  great  wooden  leaves  on  the  wall  —  nine  hundred 
square  feet  of  the  brain,  experience,  and  knowledge 
product  of  his  leading  fellow  craftsmen. 

Original  ideas  unfold  in  the  educational  trip,  the  late 
book,  the  magazine  article,  the  conference,  the  new 
friend.  "  When  I  get  hold  of  a  man  who  is  versed  in 
the  Word  of  God,"  said  Moody,  "  I  just  pump  him." 

Securing  suggestions  from  subordinates  is  another 
method.  Suggestion  box,  questionnaire,  call  to  confer- 
ence, are  among  the  means  employed.  "  Bringing  this 
down  to  actual  factory  management,"  says  Superinten- 


6o  EFFECTIVE  EFFORT 

dent  Field  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Co.,  "  we  try  to  get  this 
feeling  into  our  men  by  always  stimulating  the  initiative 
in  them.  We  are  ready  to  pay  the  cost  of  anything  that 
any  of  our  men  may  make  in  our  line  and  then  the  patent 
belongs  to  him,  we  receiving  only  the  shop  rights  for 
use  of  the  patent  in  these  shops  of  ours  here,  and  he 
having  the  right  to  sell  the  patent  or  to  receive  royalty 
from  its  use  anywhere  else  he  chooses."  ^  So  far  have 
some  executives  carried  this  plan  that  the  thought 
atmosphere  of  the  establishment  has  been  transformed. 
All  become  cooperators  in  the  development  of  new 
ideas. 

A  plan  still  more  direct  is  the  systematic  production  of 
new  ideas.  In  the  stories,  long-haired  inventors  slip 
into  the  office,  willing  to  lay  wonderful  secrets  before  the 
prosaic  executive  who  rebufifs  them.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  executives  find  such  a  source  of  supply  inadequate. 
Only  by  experimental  methods,  special  laboratories, 
libraries,  observation  trips,  and  trained  researches  can 
their  needs  be  met.  Hence  invention  is  reduced  to  a 
science,  is  placed  upon  the  basis  of  the  salary  check,  and 
made  to  pay. 

All  these  means  may  be  prolific  in  ideas,  but  they  in- 
sure no  permanency  in  the  executive  mind.  Here 
arises  the  problem  of  retention,  a  serious  question  since 
a  meager  stock  usually  is  not  due  to  lack  of  impressions 
so  much  as  our  letting  them  escape  us.  Some  have  a 
tenacious  memory,  others  may  cultivate  it,  still  others 
may  make  use  of  mnemonic  devices.^ 

*  Business  Man's  Library,  IX,  53. 

*  A  notebook  was  Phillips  Brooks'  inseparable  companion,  and  it  is 
said  the  signs  of  his  intellectual  and  spiritual  growth  may  be  traced  in 
their  multiplication. 

Henry  Ward  Beecher's  little  notebook  was  "  full  of  sketches  of  ser- 
mons, hints,  subjects,  themes,  with  occasionally  a  fully  drawn-out  skele- 
ton.   His  pocket  was  generally  half  full  of  letters,  and  on  the  back  of 


A  WELL-STOCKED  MIND  6i 

The  great  storehouse  of  impressions,  however  re- 
ceived, is  the  subconscious.  Within  its  mystic  cham- 
bers are  packed  all  our  yesterdays.  From  its  winnowed 
materials  leaders  have  developed  those  strange  bursts 
of  power  such  as  Webster's  masterful  reply  to  Hayne, 
a  speech  occupying  four  hours  and  filling  seventy  octavo 
pages,  yet  practically  extemporaneous.  Webster  had 
long  steeped  himself  in  the  ideas  of  this  speech,  so  much 
so  that  his  whole  hfe  was  really  spent  in  preparation 
for  it.  Others  may  do  as  Webster,  faithfully  immersing 
their  minds  in  law,  accounting,  scientific  management, 
or  what  not,  feeling  secure  that  in  time  of  need  their 
subconscious  will  not  fail  them. 

Moreover,  in  the  rearranging  of  these  subconscious 
thought  materials  is  the  possibility  of  a  new  and  effective 
combination,  the  bringing  forth  of  an  original  concep- 
tion. This  usually  is  the  fruit  of  musing  and  solitude. 
The  brilliant  schemes  of  Cecil  Rhodes  were  in  the  main 
developed  during  morning  rides  over  the  mountains  in 
South  Africa.  Riding  alone  across  the  deserted  slopes, 
with  the  stupendous  works  of  nature  frowning  down 
upon  him,  Rhodes  was  able  to  commune  with  himself 
in  peace.  He  recognized  what  many  a  harassed  execu- 
tive has  not  yet  grasped,  that  a  thought  to  serve  best 
must  needs  be  well  matured. 

Originality  is  rare,  and  the  commonplace  ever  abides 
with  us.  But  retaining  in  some  measure  freshness  of 
viewpoint,  cultivating  openness  to  impressions,  seeking 
the  new,  preventing  the  escape  of  impressions,  and 
maturing  thought  combinations  within  the  subconscious, 
all  are  means  by  which  the  brain  becomes  a  thought 
factory  and  origination  is  maintained. 

from  one  to  half  a  dozen  of  these,  thoughts  for  sermons  were  jotted  down 
as  they  struck  him  in  the  cars,  the  hotels,  the  steamboat." 

William  F.  Stead  once  wrote  that  a  man  without  mnemonic  devices 
was  an  intellectual  prodigal. 


62  EFFECTIVE  EFFORT 

rOCALIZATION 

Granted  that  the  thought  currents,  however,  be  made 
to  play  freely  upon  the  executive  brain,  by  their  mere 
volume  is  one  not  in  danger  of  distraction  and  conse- 
quent nervous  breakdown?  Such  in  truth  is  the  fate 
of  many  managers ;  they  sink  beneath  the  ideas  which 
pour  in  upon  them.  Each  generation  has  a  vaster 
social  heritage  to  encompass,  more  far  reaching  and 
intricate  relationships  to  which  adjustments  must  be 
secured ;  and  since  men  are  born  young  and  ignorant, 
the  demands  upon  them  exceed  their  powers.^  Thus 
they  are  tormented  with  difficulties  —  always  have  been, 
always  will  be  —  and  turn  with  relief  to  whatever 
pilot  is  able  to  chart  a  clear  course  over  troubled  seas. 
Men  in  general  do  not  wish  to  deliberate,  to  weigh  and 
balance  against  each  other  a  score  of  different  proposi- 
tions. They  prefer  a  clear-cut  statement  upon  which 
action  may  follow,  even  wrong  action  being  more  com- 
fortable than  no  action,  and  if  this  statement  be  not 
clear  and  simple,  they  prefer  that  it  be  made  so,  even 
at  the  cost  of  distortion.^ 

The  demand  here  made  upon  the  executive  is  that  he 
enter  this  complex  field  and  systematize  it ;  that,  guide 

^  "We,  the  foremost  labourers  in  creating  this  civilization,"  wrote 
Sir  Francis  Galton,  "are  beginning  to  show  ourselves  incapable  of  keep- 
ing pace  with  our  own  work.  The  needs  of  centralization,  commu- 
nication, and  culture  call  for  more  brains  and  mental  stamina  than  the 
average  of  our  race  possess.  We  are  in  crying  want  for  a  greater  fund  of 
ability  in  all  stations  of  life ;  for  neither  the  classes  of  statesmen,  phi- 
losophers, artisans,  nor  labourers  are  up  to  the  modern  complexity  of 
their  several  professions.  An  extended  civilization  like  ours  comprises 
more  interests  than  the  ordinary  statesmen  or  philosophers  of  our  present 
race  are  capable  of  dealing  with,  and  it  exacts  more  intelligent  work 
than  our  ordinary  artisans  and  labourers  are  capable  of  performing. 
Our  race  is  overweighted,  and  appears  likely  to  be  drudged  into  degen- 
eracy by  demands  that  exceed  its  powers."  Hereditary  Genius,  345. 
These  words  are  evep  more  true  now  than  when  Sir  Francis  penned  them. 

*Royce,  Religious  Aspects  of  Philosophy,  316-317. 


CONCENTRATED   EFFORT  63 

and  interpreter,  he  concentrate  within  himself  all  the 
vague  aspirations,  shadowy  longings,  and  confused  ideas 
of  his  organization,  and  as  with  a  burning  glass  set 
them  forth  with  intensity.  This  is  his  most  severe 
intellectual  test.  Whether  it  be  the  politician  weighing 
the  merits  of  free  silver,  direct  primaries,  social  justice, 
anti-imperialism,  or  the  new  freedom  as  a  taking  issue, 
the  advertiser  or  salesman  Usting  the  several  merits  of 
an  article  in  order  to  select  its  best  talking  point,  or  again, 
a  corporation  president,  after  an  elaborate  statistical  in- 
vestigation, with  the  aid  of  many  plotted  records  deter- 
mining the  new  sales  policy  or  wage  scale,  the  mental 
process  is  the  same  —  details  are  focalized  into  principles. 
Focalization  unifies  the  leader's  Ufe  and  gives  it  in- 
tensity. The  thought  currents  surge  vigorously  along 
the  narrow  familiar  channels.  Ordinary  scruples,  tri- 
fling entanglements,  are  swept  aside.  Under  pressure, 
progress  toward  the  goal  is  made,  as  was  said  of  Alex- 
ander in  his  conquest  of  Asia,  "  with  the  fervid  energy  of 
a  half -fanatic."  Focalization  provides  the  standard 
for  measuring  all  passing  phenomena.  It  never  allows 
the  deck  hand  to  be  master  of  the  ship,  neither  does  it 
seek  to  dispense  with  deck-hand  services.  It  recognizes 
and  makes  use  of  all  things  in  relation  to  the  end  in 
view.  In  this  way  men  as  social  geniuses  may  synthe- 
size the  greatness  of  their  age  and  of  their  race.  And 
in  this  same  way,  though  in  lesser  degree,  humble 
executives  can  direct  coal  yards,  grocery  stores,  and 
bakeries  more  effectively  than  otherwise  could  have 
been. 

INITIATIVE 

Every  organization  head,  be  he  merchant,  manufac- 
turer, or  poHtical  leader,  with  increased  civilization 
bears  a  heavier  burden.    Focalization,  it  has  just  been 


64  EFFECTIVE   EFFORT 

shown,  enables  him  to  hold  a  firmer  grip  on  his  task. 
Yet,  after  all,  the  matter  is  one  of  degree  only.  How 
limited  is  the  field  in  which  knowledge  is  fully  system- 
atized, focalized,  and  how  vast  are  the  jungles  within 
every  executive's  thought  kingdom !  Complete  knowl- 
edge before  every  decision  is  indeed  only  a  dream  of  the 
future ;  meanwhile  we  must  act.  In  the  twilight  zone, 
one  follows  the  light  he  has.  Henry  Clay,  after  examin- 
ing a  question  in  only  a  surface  manner,  readily  espoused 
one  side  of  it,  persuaded  of  the  absolute  correctness  of 
his  own  opinion.  He  no  doubt  represents  initiative  over- 
done, but  he  inspired  followers  with  a  ready  belief  in  his 
infallibility  and  accomplished  much  while  others  were 
merely  agreeing  that  the  question  was  complex. 

Truth  is  not  full  orbed ;  but  while  we  hesitate  on  the 
borderline  of  the  unknown,  the  initiator  surveys  the 
broken  arc,  then  boldly  completes  the  circle.  By  using 
the  same  imperfect  materials  available  to  others,  he 
constructs  the  bridge  over  which  he  invites  all  men  to 
follow  him.  Thus  was  Luther,  Alexander,  the  Christ; 
so  were  men  led  by  De  Lesseps,  McCormick,  Ingersoll, 
Bryan.  His  judgment  may  be  wrong,  it  is  true;  but 
he  removes  doubt  and  exalts  faith,  and  even  in  defeat 
he  retains  a  mastery  over  men  denied  his  hesitant  and 
coldly  calculating  brother. 

EFFECTIVENESS  ILLUSTRATED 

These  mental  processes,  it  may  seem,  spell  rashness, 
and  in  the  hands  of  the  uninitiated  they  have  frequently 
been  followed  by  disaster.  The  very  practical  matter, 
in  consequence,  is  how  to  wield  them  with  effective- 
ness. From  this  point  of  view  it  is  illuminating  to 
study  the  plans  followed  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon, 
for   not   only  was  he  a  marvelous  example  of  every 


NAPOLEON  AT  WORK  65 

quality  above  mentioned  but  his  mind  worked  with  a 
rare  precision. 

In  the  first  place  the  Emperor  had  organized  avast 
news  gathering  machine.  Every  legation  had  secret 
instructions  to  keep  record  continuously  of  troop  move- 
ments which  passed  under  its  eyes  or  came  to  its  knowl- 
edge. An  important  position  in  the  cabinet  was  created 
for  d'Ideville,  whose  duty  it  was  to  extract  from  the 
dispatches  of  these  diplomatic  agents  particulars  about 
the  composition  and  movements  of  foreign  armies. 
"The  muster-rolls  which  M.  dTdeville  succeeded  in 
supplying,"  writes  Meneval,  "were  drawn  up  with  so 
much  sagacity  and  accuracy  that  the  Emperor  knew  the 
composition  of  foreign  armies  quite  as  well  as  that  of 
the  French."  ^ 

During  campaigns  this  secretary  constantly  followed 
Napoleon,  questioning  prisoners  and  country  people, 
seizing  every  report  and  letter  which  the  chances  of 
war  threw  in  his  way.  He  bought  off  the  enemy^s  spies, 
men  like  Schulmeister,  a  veritable  turncoat,  who  not 
only  went  personally  in  search  of  information  but  set 
out  a  swarm  of  emissaries  who,  Uke  himself,  knew  how 
to  obtain  entrance  everywhere.  In  each  army  corps, 
moreover,  were  stationed  confidential  agents  who  went 
about  and  sent  in  news.  The  Emperor  again  and  again 
ordered  his  marshals  by  every  means  within  their  power 
to  gather  data  concerning  the  enemy  and  his  movements. 
And  as  for  his  own  Grand  Army,  not  a  day  must  pass 
without  a  detailed  report,  down  to  the  last  cantonment, 
being  submitted  to  him.  In  short,  through  organization, 
reports,  spies,  interviews,  secret  agents,  clipping  bureaus, 
Napoleon  provided  the  means  for  getting  information, 
and  urged  his  subordinates  to  employ  it  continuously. 

To  care  for  this  incoming  material  and  reduce  it  to 
^  Quoted  by  Vach6e,  Napoleon  at  Work,  loo-ioi. 


66  EFFECTIVE  EFFORT 

usable  form,  the  Emperor  then  developed  a  veritable 
statistical  bureau.  The  material  was  sorted,  summary 
statements  drawn  up  and  maps  prepared,  by  secretaries 
who  toiled  with  that  assiduity  characteristic  of  every- 
one around  the  Little  Corporal.  On  halting  from  the 
march,  "d'Albe  saw  to  the  installation  of  the  Emperor's 
study.  The  portfolios  containing  papers,  the  maps, 
the  two  or  three  mahogany  boxes  with  compartments 
in  which  was  a  traveling  library,  were  spread  out  on 
tables  when  there  were  any,  or  on  planks  or  doors  sup- 
ported by  trestles.  In  the  middle  of  the  room  was  a 
large  table  on  which  the  best  map  of  the  seat  of  war  was 
spread  out.  By  means  of  colors,  d'Albe  had  made  clear 
on  this  map  the  position  of  rivers,  mountains,  or  frontiers. 
This  map  was  very  accurately  oriented  before  Napoleon 
entered,  and  with  pins  with  heads  of  various  colors  there 
were  marked,  first  of  all  the  position  of  the  different 
corps  of  the  French  army,  and  then  of  the  positions  of 
the  enemy  as  far  as  they  were  known.  At  night  time 
the  map  was  surrounded  by  twenty  candles,  in  the 
midst  of  which  was  a  compass  for  measuring  distances. 

^'On  the  arrival  of  a  dispatch  d'Albe  made  a  summary 
report,  the  Emperor  following  with  his  finger  on  the  map, 
and  moving  amidst  the  pins  the  compass,  the  extent 
of  which  corresponded  to  the  distance  of  a  march."  ^ 
In  this  rapid,  graphic  way  he  kept  himself  accurately 
informed  of  the  Grand  Army,  the  enemy  and  the  sur- 
rounding topography. 

Meanwhile  the  Emperor  was  arriving  at  a  decision, 
a  flash  of  inspiration,  if  one  judges  by  surface  indications, 
a  judgment  pretty  solidly  supported  if,  to  the  contrary, 
his   methods   are   considered.^    "When   his   idea   had 

1  Vach6e,  ibid.,  97-98. 

*  It  is  significant  to  note  in  this  connection  that  Napoleon  never 
unduly  forced  himself  to  decide.  Says  Las-Cases:  "The  Emperor 
quickly  acquainted  himself  with  everything.     He  settled  many  things 


METHOD   IN  WORK  67 

reached  maturity/'  Baron  de  Meneval  tells  us  in  his 
memoires,  *'he  began  to  walk  slowly  about  the  room 
and  traverse  its  entire  length.  He  then  began  to  dic- 
tate in  a  serious  and  emphatic  voice,  without  resting 
for  a  moment.  As  inspiration  came  to  him,  his  voice 
assumed  a  more  animated  tone,  and  was  accompanied 
by  a  sort  of  habit,  which  consisted  in  a  movement  of 
the  right  arm,  which  he  twisted,  at  the  same  time  pul- 
ling the  cuff  of  the  sleeve  of  his  coat  with  his  hand.  In 
rendering  his  thought,  expressions  came  without  effort. 
They  were  sometimes  incorrect,  but  their  very  incorrect- 
ness added  to  the  energy  of  his  language,  and  even  mar- 
velously  described  what  he  wished  to  say."  ^  If  while 
working  in  his  study  the  time  for  departure  arrived,  the 
last  word  of  his  dictation  had  scarce  fallen  from  his  lips 
before  he  ordered  sharply,  *' The  carriage  —  to  horse," 
and  the  secretarial  staff  rushed  away  as  though  set  in 
motion  by  an  electric  current. 

METHODOLOGY 

Of  Napoleon's  tremendous  accomplishment  there  is 
no  doubt,  yet  after  all  was  it  due  to  certain  mysterious 
mental  operations  or  was  it  rather  the  result  of  incessant 
energy  directed  according  to  an  excellent  method?  It 
is  believed  that  the  latter  is  the  correct  interpretation ; 
more  than  this,  that  the  business  executive  is  in  position 
to  surpass  Napoleon  in  all  the  essentials  of  this  method. 

in  silence  and  threw  aside  everything  which  he  considered  useless.  He 
read  all  letters  himself,  replying  to  some  by  a  few  words  in  the  margin, 
and  in  the  case  of  others  dictating  the  reply.  Those  of  great  impor- 
tance were  always  put  on  one  side,  read  twice,  and  never  replied  to  until 
an  interval  had  elapsed.  He  believed  in  the  principle  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  sleep  over  things  calculated  to  put  one  out  of  temper.  Some- 
times he  said  'until  to-morrow,  night  brings  counsel,'  a  customary  phrase 
with  him."  Vach6e,  ibid.,  105-106. 
^Quoted  by  Vach^e,  ibid.,  103. 


68  EFFECTIVE   EFFORT 

Obviously,  since  this  method  enables  the  more  general 
principles  of  effective  effort  to  be  put  into  practical 
application,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  consider  the  ques- 
tion of  methodology  at  this  point : 

I.  Securing  Detailed  Information.  —  The  policy  which 
insures  adequate  guidance  to  any  organization  is  based 
upon  facts,  not  imagination  nor  mere  hear-say  nor  vague 
rumor.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  chance,  of  a  wild  leap  in 
the  dark ;  to  be  consistently  successful  this  policy  must 
rest  upon  verifiable  evidence.  The  executive  does  not 
court  first  the  inner  vision,  but  shrewdly  surveys  the  ob- 
jective world.     From  its  abundance  he  can  draw  data. 

Happily,  the  means  for  securing  these  data  are  several. 
A  well-known  business  man,  who  in  addition  to  his 
duties  as  general  manager  is  able  to  write  books,  con- 
tribute frequently  to  the  magazines,  and  deliver  numer- 
ous lectures,  uses  the  clipping  scheme.  To  each  of  the 
many  subjects  in  which  he  is  interested  he  assigns  a 
nimiber,  and  whenever  in  his  reading  he  comes  across 
anything  of  value  bearing  on  one  of  these  subjects  he 
pencils  in  its  appropriate  number  and  turns  it  over  to 
his  secretary  for  filing.  Sometimes  the  secretary  copies 
the  article,  should  it  be,  for  instance,  a  brief  extract  in  a 
book  from  which  it  is  not  desired  to  remove  the  pages. 
This  plan  is  of  special  value  to  editors,  teachers,  and 
ministers,  and  at  times  proves  very  helpful  to  salesmen. 

The  investigation  is  another  source  of  information. 
The  executive  learns  as  he  walks  through  the  plant ;  he 
also  learns  when  he  places  the  chemist  with  his  reagents 
in  a  little  room  near  by,  or  has  a  flat-chested  young  man 
poring  over  census  reports  in  the  library  for  him,  or  sets 
to  work  the  scientific  manager  with  his  stop  watch  and 
four  principles  of  efficiency.  In  getting  information 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  knowing  how,  and  these  men  in 
their  field  are  expert. 


THE  USE  OF  RECORDS  69 

Closely  related  to  the  investigator  is  the  man  able 
to  give  competent  counsel.  It  was  long  the  boast  of  the 
old-time  manager  that  he  knew  every  process  as  well 
as  any  of  his  men.  A  practical,  well-rounded,  self- 
reliant  craftsman,  he  scorned  to  surrender  his  pre- 
rogatives to  accountant,  chemist,  purchasing  agent, 
lawyer,  press  agent  or  welfare  worker.  Yet  the  execu- 
tive's task  has  passed  the  one-man  stage,  and  with 
its  resulting  division  of  labor  has  come  about  the  neces- 
sity of  securing  the  competent  counselor  and  of  drawing 
from  his  store  of  specialized  information. 

Extremely  servicable  and  almost  universally  used, 
at  least  in  some  form,  are  records.  "When  there  are 
many  hands,"  we  read  in  Ecclesiasticus,  ''deliver  all 
things  in  number  and  weight;  and  put  all  in  writing 
that  thou  givest  out  or  receivest  in."  This  advice  the 
business  man  diligently  puts  into  practice;  his  orders, 
requisitions,  purchases,  invoices,  investigations,  follow- 
ups  and  employees  all  have  their  appropriately  de- 
signed record  blanks,  an  intricate  and  imposing  array.^ 
The  records  tell  the  story. 

Of  the  several  sources  of  information,  of  which  the 
above  may  serve  as  illustrations,  each  executive  chooses 
those  which  best  meet  his  needs.  The  sermon  builder 
scarce  could  use  an  accountant,  nor  would  the  public 
utility  manager  discharge  his  statistician,  to  rely  upon 
newspaper  cHppings  concerning  municipal  rates  in 
Europe.  Moreover,  the  editor  who  fills  his  office  with 
unconsulted  cHppings,  the  manager  whose  employees 
record  without  discrimination  every  act,  the  census 
official  piling  governmental  archives  with  data  collected, 
then  buried  —  show  no  recognition  of  the  fact  that  inf or- 

1  An  excellent  presentation  of  this  subject  of  records,  including 
numerous  sample  forms,  is  given  by  Schulze  in  Part  III  of  his  book, 
The  American  Office.  See  also  works  on  accounting,  such  as  Nicholson, 
Cost  Accounting. 


TO  EFFECTIVE   EFFORT 

mation  is  but  a  means  to  an  end.  First  is  the  problem, 
next  its  thorough  analysis,  finally  the  gathering  of  that 
information  upon  which  its  solution  depends. 

2,  Making  Inj or  mation  Usable.  —  The  executive  can- 
not spend  his  time  poring  over  masses  of  details,  even 
though  it  be  granted  every  item  is  pertinent  to  his 
problem.  These  details  must  be  classified,  tabulated, 
summarized,  a  process  in  which  the  aim  of  manage- 
ment is  one  with  the  aim  of  science.  Science  would 
state  the  world  of  phenomena  in  shorthand  symbols, 
management  would  develop  throughout  industry  its 
standards  of  operation.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  syn- 
thetic records  and  reports  are  of  importance,  they  con- 
tain the  essential  facts  compressed.  "By  scientific 
accounting,"  says  James  Logan  of  the  United  States 
Envelope  Company,  "the  manufacturer  scans  the  de- 
tails of  his  business  with  a  vision  multiphed  many 
times.  He  looks  through  the  accounts  as  a  mariner 
looks  through  his  reef-finding  binoculars.'^ 

In  other  words,  at  the  executive's  desk  is  focused  in 
compact  and  usable  form  the  facts  upon  which  the 
effective  guidance  of  his  organization  depends.^  He 
is,  as  it  were,  at  the  front  point  of  a  great  triangular 

1  "A  prominent  financier  of  New  York  City  is  said  to  have  a  large 
room,  on  the  top  floor  of  his  residence,  where  the  walls  are  completely 
covered  with  curve  charts  on  which  points  are  plotted  as  rapidly  as  data 
can  be  obtained.  This  man  is  so  limited  for  time  that  he  keeps  in  touch 
with  general  financial  conditions  by  referring  to  the  charts  in  this  room 
for  only  a  brief  time  each  evening.  He  disappears  to  his  reference  room 
to  meet  his  private  secretary  immediately  after  dinner.  In  the  centre 
of  the  room  is  a  revolving  desk  chair  with  an  ash  tray  fastened  to  one 
arm.  For  the  length  of  one  cigar  the  financier  sits  in  his  chair  slowly 
revolving  the  chair  until  he  has  covered  the  information  given  on  all  of 
the  wall  charts,  perhaps,  if  necessary,  asking  a  few  brief  questions  of 
his  secretary.  Though  very  little  of  the  financier's  time  is  taken,  he  is 
able  by  concentrated  thought  on  the  facts  shown  by  his  wall  charts  to 
keep  in  full  touch  with  world  finance  and  to  map  out  his  own  plans  for 
future  operation."    Brinton,  Graphic  Methods^  306. 


PLANNING  AND   DISPATCHING  71 

advancing  column,  able  to  project  himself  into  the  un- 
known, to  decide  with  safety  upon  policies  for  the  future 
because  of  firm  grip  on  the  past  and  present. 

J.  Planning  and  Dispatching.  —  The  information, 
first  made  known,  then  made  usable,  is  finally  to  be 
put  into  operation.  This  is  a  matter  of  planning  and 
dispatching.  The  visitor  to  a  railroad  roundhouse  may 
see  hanging  on  the  wall  a  large  bulletin  board,  on  which 
is  posted  the  numbers  of  trains  and  engines,  the  names 
of  engineers  and  firemen,  and  the  times  due  out;  just 
as  in  the  time-table  the  traveler  finds  somewhat  similar 
information  of  trains  and  stations.  Meanwhile  along 
the  steel  rails  thunder  that  which  gives  the  plan  a 
reality,  trains  operating  on  schedule  time;  and  in  his 
oflBice  at  the  division  point  sits  the  chief  dispatcher  at 
his  key,  the  master  hand  in  this  most  wonderful  example 
of  planning  and  dispatching.  The  nature  of  their 
business  forced  railroads  to  adopt  planning  and  dis- 
patching, and  they  found  the  method  efficient. 

The  bogy  of  ^'unproductive  work"  has  retarded  manu- 
facturers from  realizing  so  fully  as  they  might  the  bene- 
fits which  systematic  planning  and  dispatching  hold 
for  them.  Yet  factories  in  increasing  number,  and  de- 
partment stores  as  well,  have  schedule  boards,  standard- 
practice  instruction,  route  clerks  and  other  of  the  ex- 
ternals indicating  that  the  principle  of  planning  and 
dispatching  has  been  adopted.  And  here  and  there 
on  the  desk  of  a  busy  executive  is  found  a  daily  work 
schedule,  a  sign  that  this  same  principle  of  planning 
and  dispatching  serves  to  increase  one's  personal  effi- 
ciency. 

In  briefest  outline  the  problem  of  directing  energy 
may  now  be  sununarized.  Power  is  to  be  developed 
only  as  needed,  its  expenditure  to  take  place  at  the  most 
fruitful  moment.     Originality  reveals  numerous  possi- 


72  EFFECTIVE   EFFORT 

bilities,  focalization  determines  which  of  these  shall  be 
pursued  and  realized.  Initiative  represents  the  manner 
in  which  the  mental  forces  are  marshaled,  and  the 
discussion  of  methodology  indicates  how  this  marshaling 
of  forces,  though  rapid,  may  be  safe  and  efficient. 
The  general  purpose  of  direction  is  to  transform  energy 
into  results,  but  this  aim  includes  the  following  chapter 
as  well. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Discuss:  "A  good  executive  has  been  described  as  a  man 
who  decides  quickly  and  who  is  sometimes  right." 

2.  Are  urban  dwellers  surface  thinkers? 

3.  How  far  in  advance  of  present  tasks  should  one  have  a 
general  plan?    A  detailed  plan? 

4.  Is  the  sum  total  of  wealth  more  or  less  valuable  than  knowl- 
edge of  the  means  for  producing  it  ? 

5.  Trace  to  its  origins  one  of  our  modern  appliances.  (Tylor, 
Anthropology^  Chs.  VIII  or  XIII.) 

6.  Distinguish  clearly  between  copying  and  adapting  the 
methods  of  others.  Why  is  the  former  more  common  and  the 
latter  more  serviceable? 

7.  Suppose  in  a  factory  you  were  trying  to  find  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing a  certain  article.    How  would  you  analyze  this  problem  ? 

READINGS 

Brinton,  Graphic  Methods  for  Presenting  Facts ^   Ch.  XIV,   or 

Parsons,  Business  Administration,  Ch.  XX. 
King,  Elements  of  Statistical  Method,  Part  II,  or  Ward,  Pure 

Sociology,  Ch.  XIX. 


CHAPTER  VII 
Organization 

"Lasst  jeden  ganz  das  bleiben  was  er  ist ; 
Er  wacht  nur  driiber  das  er's  immer  sei 
Am  rechten  Ort ;  so  weiss  er  aller  Menschen 
Vermogen  zu  dem  seinigen  zu  machen." 

—  Schiller. 

Effective  relation  among  men  is  secured  only  through 
organization.  Without  it,  effort  is  spasmodic  and 
results  are  not  had.  Moreover,  be  it  lowly  organism, 
mob  or  factory,  an  undifferentiated  structure  means 
limited  function.  When  more  and  more  men,  therefore, 
are  drawn  together  to  work  as  a  unit,  when  these  men 
must  perform  tasks  of  increased  complexity,  and  when 
efficiency  is  sought  in  every  process,  executives  find  the 
only  real  solution  lies  in  perfecting  organization. 

To  the  manager,  personally,  this  presents  two  problems. 
He  usually  commences  as  subordinate.  Let  him  choose 
wisely  his  master,  and  guard  well  his  spirit  of  initiative. 
For  some  masters  prepare  one  for  an  age  which  has 
passed,  and  in  grinding  routine  many  a  youth  dissipates 
initiative  and  coggifies  his  life.  However,  advantages 
may  be  secured  through  organization,  and  these  are  to 
be  made  his. 

ADVANTAGES   OF   ORGANIZATION 

I.  Through  Organization  a  Leader  multiplies  Him- 
self. —  The  individual  soon  reaches  the  limits   of  his 

73 


74  ORGANIZATION 

activity.  He  may  toil  long  hours  at  overloaded  desk, 
but  mere  frantic  effort  avails  little.  When  greater 
tasks  face  him,  it  becomes  a  choice  between  stepping 
aside  or  calling  in  help. 

Mirabeau  was  looked  upon  by  the  French  as  the 
Hercules  of  the  Revolution.  By  his  prodigious  labors 
he  is  rightly  so  ranked.  But  Mirabeau  had  collected 
a  veritable  workshop  of  confidential  agents,  authors, 
and  compilers.  Frochat  represented  him  in  the  Assem- 
bly, La  March  at  court ;  Dumont  wrote  his  chief  politi- 
cal speeches,  the  Abbe  Lamourette  those  on  the  civil 
constitution  of  the  clergy,  Pellenc  compiled,  and  Reyboz 
prepared  even  the  famous  speeches  on  the  assignats,  on 
the  right  of  making  war  and  peace,  and  the  devolution  of 
property  of  intestates.  "  Certainly,"  says  Stephens, 
"  no  other  man  ever  lived  who  found  so  many  men 
willing  to  efiface  themselves  merely  to  contribute  to  his 
glory."  1 

This  plan  of  Mirabeau^s  in  its  essentials  —  unifying 
the  efforts  of  several  upon  a  task  too  big  for  one  —  has 
been  employed  by  every  leader  worthy  of  note  from  the 
primitive  hunter,  setting  traps  for  elephants,  to  the 
present-day  executive  with  thousands  on  his  payroll. 
In  this  way  puny  efforts  are  multiplied  until  tasks  of 
magnitude  can  be  swung. 

2.  By  Organization  the  Division  of  Labor  is  made 
Possible.  —  It  is  not  alone  in  amount  of  work,  merely 
more  men ;  effective  management  also  means  gradation 
of  work  with  a  consequent  gradation  of  men.  Under 
such  conditions,  men  specialize.  No  longer  a  Jack-of- 
all-trades,  each  man  within  the  organization  has  a  dis- 
tinct occupation:  machinist,  fireman,  pattern  maker, 
bookkeeper.  Each  occupation  in  turn  may  be  still 
further  subdivided,  workmen  spending  their  days  mak- 
^  History  of  the  French  Revolution,  I,  259-252. 


HABITS  AND  MACHINES  75 

ing  heels  of  a  shoe,  rivets  for  an  automobile,  knobs  for 
a  bookcase,  a  minute  part  but  never  a  whole  article.^ 
Under  such  a  regime,  men  may  assume  tasks  well  suited 
to  their  particular  ability;  they  soon  acquire  the  dex- 
terity of  an  expert,  and  they  can  be  kept  employed  at 
the  same  task  without  interruption.  Product  is  thereby 
increased  without  proportionate  unit  cost. 

Not  all  organizations,  of  course,  lend  themselves  to  the 
same  division  of  labor ;  but  they  all  lend  themselves  to 
a  division  of  labor.  And  in  working  out  the  grading 
best  fitted  to  his  organizations  each  executive  faces  an 
opportunity  of  considerable  import. 

5.  Organization  permits  the  Substitution  of  Habits 
and  Mechanical  Contrivances  for  More  Expensive  Ner- 
vous Elements.  —  Initiation  is  a  consumer  of  nervous 
force.  It  employs  the  whole  organism.  The  individual 
always  alert,  casting  out  thought  combinations  as  soon 
as  once  used  and  ever  seeking  new  ones,  lives  distracted. 
But  in  the  well-worn  grooves  of  habit  the  mental  machin- 
ery runs  smoothly.  This,  management  makes  possible. 
Executives  wrestle  with  the  new  and  constantly  changing 
demands,  are  alert  to  detect  difiiculty  and  quick  to  de- 
vise the  proper  thought  combinations.     The  rank  and 

1  In  no  industry  has  this  been  worked  out  more  ingeniously  than  in 
meat-packing  establishments.  "The  animal  has  been  surveyed  and  laid 
off  like  a  map,"  says  Professor  Commons ;  "  and  the  men  have  been  clas- 
sified in  over  thirty  specialties  and  twenty  rates  of  pay  from  16  cents 
to  50  cents  an  hour.  The  50-cent  man  is  restricted  to  using  the  knife 
on  the  most  delicate  parts  of  the  hide  (floorman)  or  to  using  the  ax  in 
splitting  the  backbone  (splitter) ;  and  wherever  a  less  skilled  man  can 
be  slipped  in  at  18  cents,  18^  cents,  20  cents,  21  cents,  22I  cents,  24 
cents,  25  cents,  and  so  on,  a  place  is  made  for  him  and  an  occupation 
mapped  out.  In  working  on  the  hide  alone  there  are  nine  positions  at 
eight  different  rates  of  pay.  A  20-cent  man  pulls  off  the  tail,  a  22^  cent 
man  pounds  off  another  part  where  the  hide  separates  readily,  and  the 
knife  of  the  40-cent  man  cuts  a  different  texture  and  has  a  different 
'feel'  from  that  of  the  50-cent  men.  Skill  has  become  specialized  to  fit 
the  anatomy."     Trade  Unionism  and  Labor  Problems,  224. 


76  ORGANIZATION 

file  thus  make  the  required  changes  with  a  minimum 
of  mental  disturbance.  A  cheaper  type  of  neural  ac- 
tivity suffices. 

Especially  noteworthy  is  this  saving  when  mechanical 
contrivances  can  be  substituted  for  mental  processes. 
The  adding  machine's  cogs  remove  burdens  from  brain 
cells.  The  calendar  pad,  the  "  tickler,"  the  loose-leaf 
notebook,  go  far  in  providing  a  memory  which  never 
sleeps.  The  bulky  ledger,  the  letter  file,  the  stand- 
ardized sales  argument  set  up  in  booklet  form,  the  letter 
opener,  the  follow-up  file,  in  fact  all  the  equipment  com- 
mon in  organizations  to-day,  do  these  not  mean  a  sub- 
stitution of  inanimate  for  animate  and  thus  make 
possible  business  units  when  magnitude  would  crush  the 
strongest  brain  not  thus  supported? 

4.  The  Most  Effective  Plans  and  Policies  usually  are 
Combinations  derived  from  Many  Minds.  —  The  one- 
man-all-sufficient  type  of  control  is  narrow  and  danger- 
ous. Unto  no  man  is  given  all  knowledge,  but  by  com- 
bining that  which  many  have  the  fullness  of  truth  may 
be  approached. 

This  is  accomplished  by  the  suggestion  system,  the 
council  of  war  in  the  commander's  tent,  the  meeting 
of  corporation  directors,  department  managers,  or  travel- 
ing salesmen  in  convention,  by  all  plans  which  get  into 
service  the  thought  of  the  organization  members.  From 
such  plans  emerge  a  unified  policy  and  a  collective  wis- 
dom. The  process  apparently  is  both  slow  and  expen- 
sive, but,  if  properly  conducted,  it  possesses  neither  of 
these  defects. 

5.  Organizations  stimulate  and  stabilize  Executives.  — 
The  stimulation  derived  from  followers  has  been  con- 
sidered on  previous  pages.  But  stimulation,  in  fact,  is 
a  reciprocal  process  in  which  executive  and  subordi- 
nates each  in  turn  influence  the  other.    By  this  action 


THINGS  WELL  DONE  77 

and  reaction,  intensity  is  maintained  and  continuous 
power  developed.  Men  in  groups,  therefore,  in  organ- 
izations for  ends  political,  religious,  commercial,  are 
more  apt  to  reach  and  keep  the  higher  energizing  level. 

Groups  are  more  stable  than  individuals,  —  a  point 
to  be  considered  more  fully  in  later  chapters,  —  and  hence 
followers  serve  as  balance  wheels  and  make  for  conti- 
nuity. This  may  mean  they  smooth  out  the  excessive 
aberrations  of  their  chief.  It  may  also  mean  the  very 
practical  task  of  management  during  his  absence.  It 
is  no  compliment  to  his  ability  for  an  executive  to  see 
disorder  possess  his  organization  the  moment  his  hand 
is  withdrawn.  It  is,  however,  a  personal  triumph  to 
have  constructed  a  machine  itself  able  to  direct  affairs. 

By  their  stimulating  and  stabilizing  effect  organiza- 
tions thus  make  possible  an  increase  in  activity  without 
corresponding  loss  in  effectiveness. 

6.  Organizing  Ability  permits  Efficient  Expenditure  of 
Executive  Energy.  —  According  to  the  old  motto,  "  any- 
thing which  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well  " 
—  but  this  is  no  guide  whatever  for  the  executive. 
Examination  of  property  before  purchase  is  worth  doing ; 
but  the  shrewd  dealer  has  taken  in  the  saUent  features, 
closed  the  deal,  and  is  considering  two  new  purchases, 
before  minute  scrutiny  would  declare  the  first  task  well 
done.  Writing  a  letter  is  worth  doing ;  but  the  stenog- 
rapher shapes  many  a  letter  from  merest  indications, 
the  manager  pens  only  his  signature  —  and  oftentimes 
a  rubber  stamp  suffices  for  that.  The  real  test  of  effort 
is  the  getting  of  results,  each  unit  of  energy  being  ex- 
pended for  maximima  returns. 

Organization  makes  this  possible.  It  permits  a  rank- 
ing of  tasks  according  to  their  importance,  a  ranking  of 
men  according  to  their  ability  to  deal  with  particular 
problems,  an  emphasizing  of  efforts  according  to  their 


78  ORGANIZATION 

respective  returns.  And  the  executive,  as  the  master 
planner  and  combiner,  thus  has  wide  latitude  in  which 
to  realize  the  ideal  of  effort  expended  according  to  the 
law  of  diminishing  returns. 

Because  of  these  very  real  advantages  organization 
assumes  significance  whenever  enterprise  passes  the 
one-man  stage;  the  greatest  of  leaders  have  shown 
themselves  especially  skillful  in  its  use.  The  phalanx 
of  Epaminondas  elevated  Thebes,  and  improved  by 
Alexander  won  Macedonian  supremacy;  this  phalanx 
in  turn  fell  before  the  more  flexible  legion,  and  with  the 
new  fighting  machine  Caesar  advanced  Roman  rule. 
The  politician  in  furthering  his  enterprise  by  organiza- 
tion has  been  quite  as  adept  as  the  general,  and  the 
priesthood  has  at  times  distanced  both.  But  the  Ameri- 
can business  executive,  however,  is  the  organizer  of 
organizers,  and  his  triumphs  in  this  respect  have  only 
commenced.  The  isolated  individual  may  be  a  dramatic 
figure,  but  the  successful  executive  is  he  who  best  avails 
himself  of  other  men's  faculties. 


ORGANIZATION  APPLIED 

r.  The  Organization  Point  of  View.  —  In  setting  about 
to  reap  the  above-mentioned  advantages  nothing  is  more 
fundamental  than  what  may  be  termed  the  organization 
point  of  view.  The  essence  of  this  is  to  see  things  as 
related.  Upon  the  uninitiated  all  tasks  press  with  equal 
persistence,  but  through  increasing  knowledge  and  expe- 
rience comes  growth  in  power  to  discriminate,  the  ability 
to  detect  similarities  and  differences.  Tasks  no  longer 
appear  isolated  but  linked  together  like  parts  of  a  chain, 
related  like  grapes  on  a  stem,  subordinated  like  apex 
and  foundation  stone. 

This  is  the  organization  type  of  mind.    It  is  common 


CHARTING  THE  ORGANIZATION 


79 


to  those  drilled  in  systematic  thinking  and  long  im- 
mersed in  the  materials  of  their  particular  vocation. 
Such  a  mind  sees  details,  but  only  as  parts  of  a  whole ; 
reaches  generalizations,  but  by  the  inductive  route. 

I         Ownership        I 


Management 


Production 


Clerical 


Sellins 


j: 

f"    ^ 

IT 

A. 

X 

pin 

riii    pin    ri. 

X 

9 
s 
•0 

1 

3 

^ 

3 

1 

b 

1 

d 

5 

1 

"O 

1 

i 

1 

1 

& 

1 

^ 

1 

^ 

u 

f 

o 

§ 

1 

S 

Fig.  4.  —  An  Organization  Chart. 


2.  The  Systematic  Plan.  —  If  the  activities  of  a  fac- 
tory are  analyzed,  they  are  found  to  group  themselves 
into  certain  general  classes.  These  may  be  expressed 
graphically  as  per  the  above  diagram  (Fig.  4).  The 
same  activities,  in  the  main,  characterize  a  department 
store,  an  insurance  company,  or  a  imiversity.  Each  of 
these  might  accordingly  be  charted;  and  somewhat 
similar  diagrams  could  be  made  of  a  railroad  or  contrac- 
tor's organization,  a  city  government  or  reformers'  club. 

Whence  are  these  forms  derived?  It  has  seemed 
to  some  that  the  diagrams  themselves  possess  a  magical 
efficacy,  and  these  in  consequence  have  been  sought, 
bought,  or  borrowed.  But  this  is  mistaking  form  for 
substance.  It  is  the  organization  type  of  mind  analyz- 
ing the  concrete  problems  encoimtered  in  a  particular 


So  ORGANIZATION 

enterprise  which  produces  the  real  functional  chart. 
Discrimination  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  sum  total 
of  effort  upon  which  the  workings  of  the  enterprise 
depends.  Related  Hues  of  activity  are  detected,  singled 
out,  grouped  —  a  department,  perhaps,  is  formed. 
The  systematic  plan  is  gradually  shaped  up,  and  works, 
because  founded  on  fact. 

The  organization,  it  thus  becomes  evident,  depends 
upon  the  purpose  or  design  of  which  it  is  to  be  the  in- 
strument. Merely  a  means  to  an  end,  never  an  end  in 
itself,  all  its  principal  divisions  and  every  detail  of  its 
structure  are  shaped  to  express  the  purpose  of  its  origi- 
nator. The  systematic  plan  is  thus  organization  think- 
ing externalized.  And,  it  may  be  added,  the  executive 
may  render  this  plan  more  helpful  if  he  reduces  it  to 
graphic  form,  explains  and  keeps  it  before  those  whose 
efforts  it  is  to  guide. 

J.  Building  an  Organization.  —  Organization  involves 
two  main  elements,  work  and  men.  The  basic  require- 
ment is  that  these  be  effectively  combined.  In  order 
to  realize  this  in  practice,  the  work,  as  has  been  stated 
above,  should  be  analyzed  until  it  assumes  a  form  worthy 
to  be  termed  a  systematic  plan.  The  result  of  this 
analysis  is  that  general  efort  is  differentiated  into  typical 
tasks.  This  is  common  in  commercial  business  and  in 
manufacturing.  Division  of  labor  has  here  been  highly 
developed;  scores  of  typical  tasks,  openings  for  men, 
exist  in  these  organizations. 

The  labor  force,  in  turn,  should  be  analyzed  to  find 
typical  men.  What  is  here  desired  in  the  beginning,  of 
course,  is  numerous  applicants  from  whom  to  choose. 
The  successful  politician,  the  plant  whose  labor  reputa- 
tion is  high,  the  pennant-winning  club  has  a  wealth  of 
human  material  seeking  alliance.  Unto  him  that  hath 
it  shall  be  given.    Moreover,  the  manager  whose  appli- 


MAN  ANALYSIS  8i 

cants  secured  in  this  way  are  of  low  grade  need  not 
rest  with  them  but  may  himself  seek  men. 

A  process  of  man  analysis  is  next  brought  to  bear  upon 
these  applicants  in  the  hope  of  discovering  the  desired 
type  men.  In  a  rough  way  such  analysis  probably  began 
with  the  cave  men.  No  one  is  without  some  ability  to 
read  men,  a  sort  of  intuitive  process.  This  faculty  in 
some  has  been  developed  to  a  high  degree  of  sensitive- 
ness. It  is  said  of  Lincoln,  for  instance,  that  in  select- 
ing incumbents  for  public  trust  he  maneuvered  men  as 
pieces  on  a  chessboard,  dispassionately  considering  only 
which  available  piece  would  fit  best  in  the  square  which 
he  had  to  fill.  As  a  rule,  through  long  experience  and 
observation,  the  study  of  successful  employees  and  mis- 
fits, managers  evolve  standards  and  become  able  readily 
to  pick  men  who  satisfy  these  tests. 

This  is  the  familiar  rule-of-thumb  procedure.  It  may 
seem  that  its  defects  condemn  it ;  but  practically  it  works, 
and  likely  will  be  the  chief  reliance  of  managers  for 
generations  to  come.  Nevertheless,  systematization 
means  removing  methods  from  "  under  the  hatband," 
perfecting  them,  and  getting  them  down  upon  paper. 
The  various  requirements  for  the  position  are  noted, 
then  graded  in  their  order  of  importance.  The  result 
is  what  may  be  termed  a  score  card.  Such  score  cards 
the  agricultural  colleges  have  worked  out  satisfactorily 
for  the  judging  of  horses,  cattle,  grain,  etc.,  and  there 
is  no  good  reason  why  in  industry  similar  cards  will  not 
come  into  use.  The  principle  is  that  standards  be  set, 
each  separate  qualification  necessary  for  the  position 
being  ranked  so  many  points  on  the  basis  of  one  hun- 
dred, and  individuals  thereupon  scored  high  or  low  as 
they  approach  the  ideal  shown  by  the  card.  Merely  the 
attempt  to  prepare  such  a  score  card  will  remove  much 
of  the  indefiniteness  of  man  selection. 


82  ORGANIZATION 

To  secure  the  increased  certainty  always  desirable 
and  often  necessary  as  a  basis  for  decision,  the  experi- 
mental psychologist  is  needed.  His  tests  are  more 
accurate  and  searching,  and  even  certain  of  the  more 
elusive  psychological  factors  he  plots  on  paper.  His 
science,  however,  in  the  main  is  yet  to  be  developed,  and 
even  then  it  is  likely  that  important  limitations  will 
still  attend  its  use.^  Nevertheless  an  auspicious  begin- 
ning is  under  way  which,  even  though  it  do  no  more 
than  indicate  possibilities,  has  already  made  organiza- 
tion building  more  systematic. 

An  exact  correspondence  between  type  task  and  type 
man,  though  the  attempt  is  guided  by  all  knowledge 
available,  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  secure.  For- 
tunately, as  a  practical  working  policy,  such  corre- 
spondence is  unnecessary ;  mutual  adaptation  is  possi- 
ble. The  task  modified  to  suit  the  man  is  one  solution. 
To  one  person,  especially  in  a  small  organization  where 
the  number  of  tasks  considerably  exceeds  the  num- 
ber of  men,  may  be  assigned  the  combination  of 
tasks  which  best  fits  him.  Or,  instead  of  aiming  at  an 
ideal  organization  scheme,  which,  on  account  of  the 
non-fitting  men  upon  whose  efforts  the  plan  depends, 
would  in  practice  be  poorly  executed,  a  much  less  ideal 
systematization  of  tasks  by  its  better  adaptation  to  the 
men  involved  may  often  yield  superior  results.  What 
is  desired  is  an  effective  fit,  and  this  may  often  be 
reached  through  a  modification  of  plan. 

Modifying  men  to  suit  plan  is  an  equally  good,  often 
a  better,  solution.  Human  nature  is  not  static,  like 
clay  bricks  shaped  once  for  all,  but  possesses  plasticity 
which  permits  a  certain  amount  of  reshaping.  How- 
ever, men  vary  considerably  in  this  power  of  adapta- 
tion.    Good  heredity,  native  adaptability,  and  youth 

*  Cf.  Munsterberg,  Psychology  and  Industrial  Efficiency,  126-127. 


LABOR-SAVING  MACHINERY  83 

increase  adjustment.  Once  selected,  they  are  further 
molded  into  the  desired  ways,  numerous  plans  for 
accomplishing  which  are  discussed  on  later  pages. 

When  task  and  men  are  well  fitted  together  —  and  kept 
so  —  the  organization  is  effective.  Work  is  easy,  men 
are  happy;  harmony  prevails,  cooperation  is  assured, 
there  is  loyalty  and  efficiency.  And  these  are  results  flow- 
ing directly  from  analytical  power,  the  ability  to  detect 
elements  in  task  and  man;  and  constructive  instinct, 
the  creation  of  new  and  effective  combinations. 

4.  Supplementing  Men  by  Machines.  —  When  work 
has  been  analyzed  and  planned  in  a  systematic  way,  part 
of  it  is  reduced  to  mere  routine.  Here  is  the  opening  for 
a  machine.  The  control  of  the  routine  process  is  removed 
from  human  voUtion  and  becomes  relatively  fixed  in  a 
mechanism.  The  mind  of  the  inventor  thereupon  really 
dominates  these  processes,  the  workmen  becoming  at- 
tendants. A  high  grade  of  thinking  in  one  man  thus  per- 
mits the  utilization  of  low-grade  thinking  in  many  men. 

Processes  of  greater  and  greater  complexity  are 
steadily  being  incorporated  into  mechanisms;  scarcely 
a  day  passes  would  we  not  marvel  at  some  new  tri- 
umph of  inventive  genius  were  these  not  so  common. 
The  result  is  that  machines  have  a  continually  widening 
scope,  provided  only  that  the  work  be  reduced  to  routine. 
That  our  manufacturers  are  abundantly  able  to  do  this 
is  proved  by  observation  of  their  plants  and  the  fact 
that  the  muscle  power  of  every  wage  earner  on  an 
average  is  supplemented  by  three  horse  power.^  The 
equipment  being  demonstrated  at  business  shows  and 
found  used  by  progressive  concerns  indicates  a  similar 
movement  among  commercial  organizations.^ 

1  Abstract,  Thirteenth  Census,  471. 

2  In  present-day  ofl5ce  practice  the  following  devices  are  employed : 
billing  machines,  adding  machines,  bookkeeping  machines,  calculators, 


84  ORGANIZATION 

After  the  typical  tasks  have  once  been  outlined, 
consequently,  the  search  for  machines  should  parallel 
that  for  men;  human  effort  thus  being  supplemented 
by  mechanical  contrivances  and  effective  organization 
becoming  triune  in  nature  —  task,  man,  and  machine. 

Organization  might  then  claim  to  be  complete.  Yet 
this  is  not  so  until  the  executive  has  applied  it  to  himself 
and  is  personally  a  sharer  in  its  advantages  and  require- 
ments.    To  a  discussion  of  this  point  we  now  turn. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Discuss:  "Executive  abUity  is  the  art  of  earning  one's 
living  by  the  sweat  of  another  man's  brow." 

2.  Illustrate  by  original  graphic  chart  the  plan  of  some  organ- 
ization. 

3.  Consult  with  an  employment  manager  concerning  his 
method  of  selecting  men. 

4.  Is  it  true  that  whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing 
well? 

5.  Does  immigration  retard  the  development  of  labor-saving 
machinery  or  does  the  development  of  labor-saving  machinery 
stimulate  immigration  ? 

6.  Discuss  the  use  of  the  following :  dictaphone,  comptometer, 
mimeograph,  card  index,  vertical  letter  file,  loose-leaf  books. 

7.  Why  is  the  corporate  form  of  organization  so  largely  super- 
seding the  individual  proprietorship  and  partnership? 

8.  Are  business  concerns  more  or  less  closely  systematized 
now  than  formerly?    Why? 

READINGS 

MuNSTERBERG,  Psychology  and  Industrial  Efficiency,  Part  I. 
Blackford,  The  Man,  The  Job,  The  Boss. 

duplicators,  addressing  machines,  typewriters,  manibilling  machines, 
filing  devices,  envelope  sealers,  stamp  afl&xers,  check  protectors,  folding 
machines,  time  clocks.    And  this  list  is  by  no  means  exhaustive. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Systematic  Personal  Effort 

"It  is  this  thinking  man  —  the  Count  Moltke,  with  his  head 
over  some  papers  —  who  sees  that  the  proper  motions  are  applied 
to  matter  in  the  activities  of  production,  distribution,  and  adminis- 
tration." —  Walter  Bagehot. 

A  MASS  of  material  pours  in  upon  every  executive. 
Letters  by  the  hundreds  are  dumped  into  the  ofl&ce, 
the  mere  opening  of  which  would  often  consume  his 
working  hours.  Streams  of  callers  besiege  him ;  receiv- 
ing each  would  leave  the  reception  room  still  crowded 
at  nightfall.  Telephone  messages,  telegrams,  messen- 
gers, memoranda  from  subordinates,  press  new  problems 
upon  him ;  "  unfinished  business  "  haunts  the  office 
and,  like  Banquo's  ghost,  will  not  down.  Under  such 
a  burden  many  a  manager  is  being  crushed.  His  life 
is  one  long  losing  fight.  In  spite  of  strenuous  activity, 
there  has  remained  no  time  for  those  larger  problems 
upon  which,  after  all,  successful  guidance  depends. 

And  this,  too,  even  though  the  executive  in  question 
is  an  organization  head  and  the  incoming  material  is 
solely  of  an  administrative  nature.  Obviously,  to  take 
a  vacation  in  the  mountains  leaving  things  to  go  as  they 
will,  or  to  cut  down  the  volume  of  business,  are  neither 
to  be  seriously  considered  as  solutions.  The  real  avenue 
of  escape  lies  in  systematizing  one's  own  personal  effort. 
Upon  what  measures  does  this  depend  ? 

I.  A  Classification  of  Material. —  Analysis  brought  to 
bear  upon  this  material  reveals  certain  types  or  classes ; 

^85 


86  SYSTEMATIC  PERSONAL  EFFORT 

such,  for  instance,  as  correspondence,  callers,  telephone 
calls,  telegraph  messengers,  unfinished  business,  new- 
business.  The  plan  is  merely  to  sort  the  various  tasks 
into  a  few  main  categories,  something  which  in  most 
cases  can  readily  be  done  since  the  classes  are  general 
and  usually  obvious. 

2,  A  Subordination  of  Material.  —  The  material  thus 
classified  should  not  be  attacked  as  a  mere  mass.  It  is 
to  be  arranged  in  pyramid  form  so  the  executive  may  strike 
at  the  apex.  This  plan  applied  to  correspondence,  for 
example,  would  work  out  somewhat  as  follows:  The 
incoming  mail  is  sorted  by  an  assistant.  Part  of  it  is  of 
routine  nature  and  need  not  come  to  the  executive's 
attention  at  all.  Certain  letters  may  contain  certain 
sections  worthy  of  the  chief's  perusal.  Such  sections 
may  be  underscored  or  margin  checked.  Still  other 
letters  may  be  condensed  for  his  rapid  reading.  Under 
some  such  plans  as  these  the  executive  handles  only 
concentrated  correspondence.  Every  effort  in  reading 
hits  the  apex. 

The  outgoing  mail  is  handled  from  a  similar  point  of 
view.  Part  of  the  replies  are  completely  standardized 
and  subordinates  manage  these  without  executive  com- 
ment. Another  part  may  be  composed  of  standardized 
paragraphs,  to  the  typists  being  given  numbers  referring 
to  the  particular  paragraphs  desired  in  each  letter.  Still 
other  letters  are  answered  by  such  general  statements  or 
notations  on  the  letters  as  "  Refuse  request,"  *'  Grant 
usual  rate,"  "  Ask  W.  to  arrange  this,"  the  subordinates 
through  long  familiarity  with  the  routine  being  able  in 
this  way  to  compose  the  entire  letter.  The  small  pro- 
portion of  letters  not  disposed  of  by  the  foregoing  means 
are  to  be  dictated  in  their  entirety.  Thus  there  are 
numerous  plans  through  which  the  executive  effort  ex- 
pended upon  letters  yields  more  and  better  returns. 


THE  EFFICIENCY  DESK  87 

According  to  this  general  plan  of  subordinating 
material,  the  executive  does  not  see  every  caller,  but 
certain  callers ;  does  not  talk  with  every  one  who  calls 
up  on  the  telephone,  but  with  a  selected  few ;  does 
not  seek  here  and  there  for  what  he  needs,  but  has  it 
brought ;  does  not  pile  his  desk  with  undigested  masses 
of  figures,  but  studies  boiled-down  reports.  Subordinates 
quarry  at  the  base  of  the  pyramid;  he  directs  their 
efforts  from  the  apex. 

J.  Mechanical  Aids.  —  System  exists  in  the  man ;  it 
shows  itself  in  his  work.  Does  he  get  much  done,  does  he 
do  it  well,  does  he  get  it  done  on  time?  Whoever  thus 
qualifies  is  a  systematic  worker.  It  would  follow  that  sys- 
tem in  reality  does  not  consist  of  card  indexes,  blanks  and 
charts,  red  tape.  Nevertheless,  these  things  have  their  le- 
gitimate place,  and,  regarded  in  their  true  light  as  means 
to  an  end,  assume  an  importance  to  the  systematic  man. 

A  mechanical  aid  of  great  value,  yet  in  whose  drawers 
and  pigeonholes  lurk  system's  strongest  foes,  is  the 
office  desk.  A  flat- topped  desk  is  the  best  type,  and  its 
deck  should  be  kept  cleared  for  action.  Unfinished  work, 
instead  of  being  scattered  here  and  there  through  a  half- 
dozen  pigeonholes,  should  be  awaiting  one  in  the  hold- 
over file.  Tasks  for  any  reason  not  completed  should 
be  filed  ahead.  The  new  tasks  should  be  sorted  into  the 
day's  work  folder.  Each  task  as  it  is  taken  up  should 
receive  definite  treatment.  This  may  call  for  a  series 
of  little  boxes  or  compartments^  properly  labeled^  into 
which  the  outgoing  material  is  sorted;  and  some  form 
of  filing  system  for  that  material  which  is  to  be  retained. 
Of  the  various  desk  devices  these  are  some  of  the  most 
helpful.  But  whatever  aids  are  used,  the  work  should 
proceed  in  a  rapid,  orderly  sequence. 

One  disturbing  factor  is  the  presence  of  unwelcome 
callers.    Among  the  methods  for  limiting  loss  of  time 


88  SYSTEMATIC  PERSONAL   EFFORT 

from  this  source  are  the  "  buffer,"  the  private  secretary, 
or  switchboard  operator  who  discriminates  among 
callers ;  the  forestalling  of  trouble  by  granting  a  definite 
amount  of  time  in  advance;  making  the  call  fruitful 
by  seeking  information  instead  of  giving  it;  rising  as 
a  sign  the  interview  is  terminated;  or  commencing 
work  or  looking  at  the  clock  as  a  hint  to  leave.  But 
certain  mechanical  devices  also  serve  well  the  same  pur- 
pose. A  buzzer  is  concealed  where  it  may  be  con- 
veniently pressed ;  the  secretary  rings  a  return  buzzei 
whose  sound  warns  the  caller,  or  she  appears  in  person 
to  call  the  chief.  Or  by  means  of  an  electric  writing 
attachment  the  executive  may  learn  from  the  secretary 
who  is  waiting  outside,  and  terminate  the  call  ac- 
cordingly. By  some  such  means  as  these,  the  executive, 
without  offense,  may  control  his  caller's  stay. 

Another  disturbing  element  is  a  faulty  memory. 
Managers  must  encompass  an  enormous  mass  of  data 
—  and  the  overloaded  memory  is  almost  certain  to  break 
down.  Keep  leading  plans  and  principles  in  mind,  turn 
details  over  to  mechanical  aids,  is  a  good  working  rule. 
There  is  the  ordinary  notebook,  the  loose-leaf  notebook, 
unbound  leaves  to  be  carried  in  a  leather  pocket  case, 
in  each  instance  the  sheets  being  either  plain  or  ruled 
to  such  special  forms  as  are  most  serviceable.  There  is 
also  the  desk  calendar  pad,  its  sheets  prepared  in  daily, 
weekly,  or  monthly  forms  with  blank  space  for  jottings. 
Another  device  is  the  hold-over  file.  Under  proper 
label  in  this  file  is  to  be  found  the  information  when 
wanted.  But  perhaps  the  best  device  of  all  is  a  small 
card  index  to  be  kept  on  the  desk  and  worked  in  connec- 
tion with  loose  sheets  of  paper  of  the  same  size  carried 
in  the  pocket.  Notations  can  be  conveniently  made 
upon  these  cards  at  any  time;  each  sheet  may  then 
be  filed  in  the  card  index  under  the  proper  date. 


WORKING  ON  SCHEDULE  89 

"  Don't  take  your  business  cares  to  bed  with  you," 
becomes  in  this  way  a  maxim  to  be  realized  in  practice. 
When  the  burden  of  detail  has  been  rolled  upon  devices 
which  never  tire  nor  forget,  the  brain  may  rest  in  the 
faith  that  all  is  well. 

4.  The  Day^s  Work  Planned. — The  systematic  worker 
wastes  no  time  in  getting  under  way.  Upon  arrival 
in  the  morning  he  reaches  for  the  card  index  file; 
under  the  proper  date  is  its  "  Things  for  To-day."  In 
the  similar  pocket  of  the  hold-over  file  reposes  the 
"  Unfinished  Business  "  now  ready  for  attention.  On 
the  calendar  pad  is  the  Hst  of  appointments.  Upon  a 
certain  designated  place  at  his  desk  is  soon  to  be  placed 
the  "  New  Business,"  properly  boiled  down  by  subordi- 
nates. Here  are  the  materials  to  be  builded  into  the 
day's  work  plan. 

This  material  first  is  to  be  classified.  Although  each 
business  may  make  necessary  slight  variations,  all 
executives  will  be  able  to  make  some  general  classifica- 
tion. For  instance,  some  material  may  be  disposed  of  by 
dictation ;  it  can  be  slipped  into  the  "  Ready  to  Dictate  " 
section  of  the  day's  work  folder.  Certain  tasks  must 
not  be  delayed ;  these  should  be  sorted  into  the  "  Im- 
mediate Action  "  section.  Other  tasks,  it  is  commonly 
found,  require  consultation  with  a  co-worker;  such 
material  is  to  be  slipped  into  a  section  labeled  with  his 
name.  Some  tasks  cannot  at  present  be  solved,  must 
be  delayed  until  the  required  quotations,  perhaps,  are 
received;  these  should  be  set  forward  in  the  hold-over 
file.  The  day's  work  thus  assumes  a  plan.  A  schedule 
can  now  be  prepared.  In  black  and  white  the  mechan- 
ical aids  give  their  commands  —  and  these  are  to  be 
obeyed.  There  must  be  no  turning  over  to  sleep  another 
half  hour  when  the  business  alarm  clock  rings  out  its 
orders. 


90  SYSTEMATIC  PERSONAL   EFFORT 

5.  Sharing  Burdens.  —  The  foregoing  plans  rest  upon 
the  assumption  that  the  executive  is  not  to  do  every- 
thing himself.  He  could  —  at  least  he  often  feels  he 
could  —  do  these  things  better  than  anybody  else,  and 
for  this  reason  managers  of  the  over-particular  sort 
frequently  grind  themselves  out  in  routine.  "  The 
proverbial  reluctance  to  allow  those  to  enter  the  water 
whom  we  would  have  swim,"  observes  John  Wanamaker, 
"  has  given  short  measure  to  many  a  success." 

Napoleon,  in  his  failure  to  relieve  himself  of  details 
by  building  up  an  adequate  staff,  is  an  illustrious  in- 
stance of  this  truth.  During  his  early  years  he  made 
up  for  this  by  remarkable  activity,  but  by  the  time  of 
the  last  German  campaign  the  intellect,  once  sweeping 
and  vigorous  enough  to  compass  all  details,  had  begun 
to  falter.^  Napoleon's  defeat  at  Leipsic  was  mainly  due 
to  his  neglect  of  details  which  he  here  seems  to  have  left 
largely  to  subordinates.  Hitherto  he  had  saved  them 
practically  all  the  thinking,  and  now  in  the  emergency 
they  possessed  no  directive  capacity,  but  looked  to  him  to 
arrange  everything.  Such  business  Napoleons  are  legion, 
and  Leipsics  in  consequence  are  being  lost  every  day. 

Working  strenuously  at  a  desk  overloaded  with  de- 
tails may  give  one  the  feeling  that  things  are  moving 
swiftly ;  however,  the  real  test  of  an  executive  is  not  so 
much  what  he  does  as  what  he  gets  done.  "  Let  the 
other  fellow  do  the  work,"  says  Alexander  J.  Cassatt  of 
the  Pennsylvania ;  "  I've  been  trying  the  experiment 
of  confining  myself  to  learning  how  a  thing  ought  to  be 
done  —  and  then  seeing  that  somebody  else  does  it  that 
way."  1 

Another  railroad  executive,  Charles  E.  Perkins,  for 
many  years  president  of  the  Burlington,  summarized  his 
working  principles  as  follows :  "  Never  do,  or  undertake 
*  System,  November,  1906,  449. 


SHARING  RESPONSIBILITIES  91 

to  do,  yourself  what  can  be  done  sufficiently  well  by  a 
subordinate.  There  are  things  enough  which  cannot  be 
done  sufficiently  well  by  subordinates  to  occupy  your 
time  and  mind. 

"  Trust  those  under  you,  and  let  each  one  work  at  his 
problems,  for  the  most  part,  himself;  otherwise  your 
subordinates  will  not  learn  to  depend  upon  themselves, 
but  upon  you. 

"  Keep  as  much  as  possible  out  of  petty  everyday 
details.  Let  stated  reports  be  made  to  your  adjutants,  if 
you  choose,  but  do  not  take  it  upon  yourself  to  see  them 
all.  So  long  as  the  machine  works  smoothly  you 
should  be  a  looker-on,  except  as  to  those  particular  parts 
of  it  which,  because  others  cannot  do  them  well 
enough,  you  yourself  may  undertake  to   attend  to."  ^ 

Burdens  should  be  shared  —  to  that  all  no  doubt 
will  agree  —  but  how?  Too  minute  attention  to  de- 
tails buries  the  executive  beneath  his  organization; 
ignoring  all  details,  he  becomes  an  alien  outside  it.  The 
proper  balance  is  struck  by  making  one's  personal  effort 
systematic.  Organization  activities  are  graded  and 
reduced  to  pyramid  form;  the  executive  works  at  the 
apex.  The  pyramid  itself,  however,  is  no  monument, 
but  a  throbbing  organism  with  conununication  fibers 
binding  it  to  the  organization  head.  And  the  execu- 
tive now  and  then  quits  his  lofty  post  to  move  among 
the  substations,  seeing  for  himself  how  truly  their  ac- 
tivities are  being  transmitted  to  him  and  sensing  afresh 
the  significance  of  their  work. 

To  the  executive  whose  powers  are  organized  great 
accompHshment  becomes  possible;  task  after  task  is 
taken  up  and  dispatched  at  a  clip.  Yet  there  is  no 
undue  haste.  Men  forced  to  hurry  have  badly  disposed 
of  their  time;  the  systematic  man  can  afford  leisure. 
*  Morris,  Railroad  Administration^  95. 


92  SYSTEMATIC  PERSONAL  EFFORT 

Originality  and  initiative  are  not  frittered  away  by 
detail  but  conserved  through  organized  effort.  With 
reserve  power  and  time  at  his  command  the  executive 
rises  to  his  true  position  as  shaper  of  policies  and  di- 
rector of  men. 

Part  I  may  now  be  concluded.  It  has  considered,  in 
turn :  energy,  its  significance  and  development ;  direc- 
tion, the  application  of  power  for  specific  ends;  and 
organization,  the  securing  of  larger  results  through 
systematic  effort,  both  among  subordinates  and  with 
oneself.  Yet  the  possession  of  these  three  qualities 
is  only  one  phase  in  the  control  of  men.  Individuality 
seeks  to  realize  itself;  the  organization  builded  for 
this  purpose  must  be  motivated,  and  to  this  problem 
is  devoted  Part  II. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Which  comes  more  natural  to  men,  doing  things  or  having 
them  done?    Which  is  the  true  executive  policy? 

2.  Of  what  importance  to  the  executive  is  the  private  secre- 
tary? Why  have  these  secretaries  frequently  advanced  to  ad- 
ministrative positions  ? 

3.  How  improve  the  memory?  What  plans  enable  you  to 
prevent  overloading  the  memory  ? 

4.  Draw  up  a  day's  work  schedule. 

5.  Why  is  household  work  usually  very  inefficient?  Describe 
the  arrangement  of  an  efficiency  kitchen. 

6.  Describe  in  detail  how  a  certain  executive's  office  might 
be  arranged  for  greatest  efficiency. 

READINGS 

James,  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology,  Ch.  XII. 

How  to  Systematize  the  Day's  Work.    (The  A.  W.  Shaw  Co.) 


PART   II:    MOTIVATING   THE 
GROUP 


CHAPTER  rx 

Stimulating  and  Controlling  Men 

"No  wild  enthusiast  ever  yet  could  rest, 
Till  half  mankind  were  like  himself  possessed." 

—  COWPER. 

"Executive  ability  consists  in  getting  the  right  men  in  the  night 
places  and  keeping  them  willingly  at  the  top  notch." 

—  Herbert  G.  Stockwell. 

In  order  to  realize  his  individuality,  the  executive 
must  motivate  his  group ;  that  is,  must  stimulate  and 
control  other  men  to  do  what  he  would  have  them  do. 
"  When  the  mayor  crosses  the  threshold  with  quick 
step,  every  clerk  bends  more  eagerly  to  his  task,"  it  was 
recently  said  of  a  New  York  magistrate.  "  The  moment 
he  appeared,  everything  was  in  motion,"  was  the  way 
his  biographer  characterized  Lord  Nelson.  William 
the  Silent  was  "  one  of  those  people  who  bring  hustle 
and  activity  with  them  wherever  they  are."  Henry  IV 
of  France  dispatched  those  spirited  notes  which  "  seem 
written  when  his  foot  was  already  in  the  stirrup.  They 
breathe  the  fresh  vigor  of  the  morning  and  recall  in  their 
stirring  brevity  the  note  of  horn  or  trumpet  rousing 
huntsman  or  soldiers."  ^     Chinese  Gordon  so  impressed 

^  One  of  these  reads  as  follows :  "  Put  wings  to  your  best  horse.  I 
have  told  Montespan  to  break  the  wind  of  his.  Why?  That  will  I 
tell  you  at  Nerac.  Hasten,  speed,  fly.  This  is  the  command  of  your 
master  and  the  prayer  of  your  friend." 

95 


96     STIMULATING  AND   CONTROLLING  MEN 

the  whole  population  that  "  The  Pasha  is  coming  "  was 
news  that  inspired  alertness  in  every  functionary. 
Such  men  —  and  there  are  many  like  them  — commu- 
nicate a  thrill  at  every  contact. 

Executives  vary  considerably,  however,  in  this  re- 
spect. In  organizations  seemingly  well  constructed  one 
often  observes  the  lack  of  "  snap,''  "  vim,"  "  push  " ; 
apathy  reigns,  systematic  "  soldiering "  cuts  away 
profits;  the  whole  force,  it  is  declared,  is  a  lazy  lot. 
Wholesale  discharge  somehow  fails  to  remedy  matters. 
The  new  force  soon  settles  into  the  snail's  pace  main- 
tained by  the  old ;  the  disease  has  not  been  eradicated. 
It  is  this  same  disease  whose  miasma  pervades  railroad 
shops,  department  stores,  public  schools,  counting  houses. 
Its  blight  swells  the  bankruptcy  courts  and  dwarfs  the 
nation's  surplus.  And  no  one  appreciates  this  fact 
more  keenly  than  the  average  executive.  His  subordi- 
nates exercise  only  a  part  of  their  powers,  and  he 
knows  it. 

Yet  the  energy  is  there  all  the  while,  a  mine  of  wealth 
for  the  prospector,  reservoirs  of  power  ready  to  be 
tapped.    The  executive  need  not  fail. 

THE   SOURCE   OF  EFFORT 

Directed  effort,  commonly  termed  work,  is  at  bottom 
due  to  neural  matter  stimulating  muscular  tissue.  The 
influence  of  the  leader  at  most  is  only  secondary;  pri- 
marily, subordinates  act  because  their  brain  cells  so 
command.  Now  the  basic  elements  of  mind  are  the 
instincts.  Vague  and  general  and,  in  our  present  state 
of  knowledge,  impossible  to  classify  accurately,  these 
instincts  and  the  primary  tendencies  growing  out  of 
them  furnish  the  springs  of  all  human  activity. 

The  English  psychologist  first  to  discuss  the  instincts 


ANALYSIS  OF  MIND  97 

with  systematic  emphasis,  William  McDougall,  has  drawn 
up  the  following  classification :  ^ 

Flight  Acquisition 

Repulsion  Construction 

Curiosity  Reproduction 

Pugnacity  Parental  instinct 

Self-assertion  and  self-abasement  Gregarious  instinct 

He  also  presents  some  general  or  non-specific  innate 
tendencies,  such  as  sympathy,  suggestion,  imitation, 
emulation.  From  the  viewpoint  of  instincts,  then,  why 
do  men  act?  Because  they  fear,  are  disgusted,  or  cu- 
rious or  angry ;  because  they  desire  to  assert  themselves 
or  abase  themselves;  because  they  wish  to  acquire  or 
construct,  to  gratify  the  parental  instinct  or  enjoy  the 
company  of  their  fellows;  in  short,  to  satisfy  their 
innate  or  instinctive  tendencies. 

A  second  element,  however,  enters  in  to  modify  the 
play  of  mere  instinctive  activity,  and  this  is  feeling. 
Viewed  in  the  light  of  evolution,  certain  types  of  reac- 
tion have  proved  advantageous  to  the  species;  these 
in  general  are  pleasurable.  Certain  others  have  proved 
detrimental;  these  on  the  whole  cause  pain.  Pleasure 
and  pain,  consequently,  entering  in  as  powerful  adjuncts 
to  the  instincts,  have  their  part  in  shaping  activity. 

A  third  element  must  also  be  considered,  the  intellect. 
In  the  complex  life  of  civilization,  success  does  not  depend 
merely  upon  instinctive  and  emotional  promptings;  at 
every  turn  is  seen  the  influence  of  consciously  wrought- 
out  adaptations.  The  intellect  becomes  the  supreme 
factor  in  adjustment  to  environment.  Men  toil  because 
they  judge  the  results  of  labor  preferable  to  idleness; 
they  submit  to  continued  effort  and  enforce  self-discipline 
because  it  appeals  to  them  as  intelligent  procedure. 

1  Social  Psychology,    See  especially  Ch.  III. 

H 


98     STIMULATING  AND   CONTROLLING   MEN 

From  the  above  brief  analysis  of  the  mind  may  be 
drawn  two  conclusions  of  extreme  importance.  However 
commonplace  they  may  seem,  it  is  from  the  neglect  of 
these  principles  that  stagnation  often  rules  the  camp; 
by  their  recognition  and  application  the  organization 
moves  at  double-quick. 

I.  The  True  Springs  of  Effort  are  found  in  the  Minds 
of  Followers.  —  Activity  on  the  part  of  the  executive  is 
only  a  means  to  an  end ;  the  real  test  is  the  effect  pro- 
duced in  subordinates.  The  orator  who  gesticulates 
most  violently  often  has  a  bored  audience,  the  foreman 
does  not  abolish  "  soldiering  "  merely  by  dashing  about 
the  shop.  We  may  be  entertained  by  acrobatic  stunts, 
but  not  stimulated. 

Although  forty-pound  blows  on  the  top  of  a  piano 
produce  no  music,  two-ounce  strokes  on  the  keyboard 
may  fill  a  whole  room  with  melody.  The  lighter  strokes 
have  been  properly  placed.  This  illustration  from  the 
piano  is  confirmed  in  a  most  emphatic  way  by  experi- 
ments upon  living  organisms.  Galvanic  power  applied 
to  the  nerve  in  a  frog's  leg  releases  energy  70,000  times 
greater  than  the  original  stimulation.^  Organisms, 
therefore,  should  be  likened  to  a  great  pile  of  dry-goods 
boxes,  to  sticks  of  dynamite;  proper  stimulation  is  the 
match,  the  percussion  cap  —  relatively  insignificant  in 
itself  but  sufficient  to  cause  the  bonfire,  the  tremendous 
explosion. 

With  human  beings  this  is  especially  true.  A  word 
gently  spoken  has  set  a  whole  army  in  motion.  A  simple 
gesture  may  evoke  in  tensest  enthusiasm.  One  unit  of 
energy  properly  appHed  multiplies  itself  a  million  fold. 
But  this  energy  to  be  effective  is  not  pounded  upon  men's 
rough  exteriors,  but  releases  the  power  latent  within. 

*  James,  WUl  to  Believe,  224-225.  Cf.  his  Memories  and  Studies, 
138-139. 


THE  RELEASE  OF  ENERGY  99 

In  this  fact  is  to  be  found  the  right  point  of  view.  A 
leader  should  not  work  upon  the  exterior,  pounding  and 
forcing,  but  from  the  interior,  stimulating  and  releas- 
ing. It  is  his  task  to  pull  triggers  in  the  minds  of  fol- 
lowers. 

Activity  is  thus  readily  initiated.  Even  lower  organ- 
isms are  not  passive  to  the  environment,  but  essentially 
active.  Inertness  by  no  means  characterizes  mankind. 
Shaped  as  it  has  been  by  a  struggle  for  existence  cen- 
turies old,  human  nature  is  essentially  dynamic.^  Man 
has  a  full  complement  of  instincts  which  press  for  dis- 
charge; a  range  of  emotional  promptings  unrivaled  in 
the  animal  kingdom;  and  intellectual  conceptions  of 
the  most  compelHng  sort.  Physiologically  and  psycho- 
logically, he  is  builded  for  action. 

Sociologically,  as  well,  the  same  is  true.  Even  among 
primitives  the  motto  is  often  shaped  to  spur  the  laggard. 
"Be  not  idle,  but  labor  diligently,  that  you  may  not 
become  slaves,"  say  the  Karens  of  Burma.  "  Persever- 
ance always  triumphs,"  is  a  saying  of  the  Basutos.  In 
the  sowing  of  com,  again  and  again  Zoroaster  found 
true  merit.  The  words  of  St.  Paul  are  equally  clear  and 
explicit,  "  If  any  will  not  work,  neither  let  him  eat." 
This  belief  that  activity  is  commendable  is  especially 
deep-grained  in  the  Americans.  A  picked  lot,  energetic 
migrants  from  many  lands,  they  never  weary  of  inculcat- 
ing maxims  of  industry,  no  stories  being  more  highly 
prized  than  those  in  which  success  is  won  through  stern 

^"All  the  inducements  of  early  society  tend  to  foster  immediate 
action;  all  its  penalties  fall  on  the  man  who  pauses;  the  traditional 
wisdom  of  those  times  was  never  weary  of  inculcating  that  'delays  are 
dangerous,'  and  that  the  sluggish  man  —  the  man  'who  roasteth  not 
that  which  he  took  in  hunting'  —  will  not  prosper  on  the  earth,  and  in- 
deed will  very  soon  perish  out  of  it.  And  in  consequence  an  inability 
to  stay  quiet,  an  irritable  desire  to  act  directly,  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous failings  of  mankind."    Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  186. 


loo    STIMULATING  AND   CONTROLLING  MEN 

endeavor.  It  is  felt  that  everybody  should  be  doing 
something  useful,  that  recreation  is  justifiable  only 
because  it  prepares  people  for  more  work.  By  this 
social  tradition,  consequently,  is  shaped  in  the  minds 
of  followers  an  attitude  valuable  to  managers,  viz.  a 
more  ready  willingness  to  respond  to  stimulation  by 
expending  effort.  The  source  of  energy  has  been  well 
prepared. 

2.  There  are  not  merely  One  hut  Several  Means  of 
Releasing  Energy.  —  A  man  is  willing  to  expend  effort, 
as  was  pointed  out  above,  because  prompted  to  do  so  by 
any  of  the  numerous  instincts,  the  different  emotions, 
or  the  various  phases  of  intellect.  This  is  the  second 
conclusion  of  importance.  The  mind  is  complex  and 
can  be  reached  in  many  ways. 

Yet  this  fact  is  often  neglected.  Employers  of  labor, 
for  instance,  usually  proceed  upon  the  assumption  that 
the  mind  has  only  one  motive  force;  they  rest  their 
case  upon  the  pay  check.  This  view  is  narrow.  De- 
sire for  gain  is  only  one  of  many  motives,  a  fact  which  is 
demonstrated  again  and  again  by  employers  who  through 
wider  appeal  secure  greater  effort  for  less  money  cost. 

Men's  minds  may  be  compared  to  a  log  jam  in  the 
spring  freshet.  There  is  surging  and  seething,  much 
energy  under  restraint.  The  chief  logger  of  the  lumber 
drive  chooses  in  advance  neither  bank  nor  midstream 
location  for  attack ;  but  when  the  jam  is  on,  he  seeks  out 
the  key  log.  If  this  one  log  does  not  release  the  jam,  he 
attacks  those  next  in  importance  until  the  whole  mass 
swings  off  down  the  stream.  The  logs  are  ranked  ac- 
cording to  their  releasing  power.  The  leader  of  men 
should  so  rank  the  means  at  his  command. 

When  the  executive  has  recognized  that  the  true  source 
of  organized  energy  is  in  the  minds  of  subordinates,  and 
like  an  artist  employs  the  means  which  best  release  it, 


MEN'S  SOCIALIZED'  T^ATURE  '  » '''  ^  '  ^  '  ^i 

a  certain  effort  on  his  part  will  develop  maximum  effort 
in  them.  And  this,  so  far  as  stimulation  is  concerned, 
is  the  ideal  of  leadership. 

CONTROL 

Stimulation  is  only  one  phase  of  the  matter.^  It  is 
not  energy  per  se  which  suffices,  but  energy  insuring 
results.  Aimless  efforts  may  in  fact  be  worse  than  none, 
because  destructive.  In  order  that  accomplishment 
may  be  made  certain,  control  must  intervene.  The 
problem  is  how  this  may  be  secured.  Granting  that  full 
stimulation  may  be  had,  how  prevent  discordant  action  ? 
Why  do  not  men  under  urging  inevitably  take  to  the 
woods  ? 

Fundamentally,  this  depends  upon  their  social  nature, 
a  quality  in  itself  due  to  the  fact  that  throughout  the  age- 
long struggle  for  existence  collective  effort  has  meant 
survival.  As  bees  hve  in  swarms,  ants  in  colonies, 
wolves  in  packs,  and  elephants  in  herds,  so  have  men  from 
their  very  earliest  origins  united  their  efforts  in  common 
cause.2    Every  advance  in  civilization  since  the  cave 

1  Fundamentally,  control  is  a  phase  of  stimulation,  since,  as  Howell 
points  out,  the  impulse  conveyed  to  tissue  or  cell  by  nerve  fiber  may 
stimulate  activity,  in  which  case  the  efifect  is  exciting,  or,  if  already 
active,  the  tissue  or  cell  may  be  reduced  to  a  condition  of  rest  or  lessened 
activity,  the  effect  then  being  inhibitory.  Cf .  Text-book  of  Physiology, 
75.  Similarly  Verworn  defines  stimulus  as  "every  alteration  in  the 
external  vital  conditions."  Cf.  Irritability,  37.  However,  in  this  dis- 
cussion the  popular  usage  of  the  terms  is  retained. 

2  So  important  does  Darwin  consider  this  social  nature  that  he  con- 
cludes "it  might  have  been  an  immense  advantage  to  man  to  have 
sprung  from  some  comparatively  weak  creature"  because  "an  animal 
possessing  great  size,  strength,  and  ferocity,  and  which,  like  the  gorilla, 
could  defend  itself  from  all  enemies,  would  not  perhaps  have  become 
social ;  and  this  would  most  effectually  have  checked  the  acquirement 
of  the  higher  mental  qualities,  such  as  sympathy  and  love  of  his  fellows." 
Descent  of  Man,  64.     Cf .  also  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid. 


162  ;  STIMUI^ATING  ANt)   CONTROLLING  MEN 

men  has  increased,  not  decreased,  their  interdependence. 
Our  contemporaries  live  only  through  mutual  aid.  One 
result  is  very  clear,  that  this  evolution  has  developed 
a  socialized  human  nature.  Untempered  egoism  is  a 
myth.  It  never  could  have  characterized  the  intergroup 
relations  of  men  since  that  stock  defective  in  socia- 
bility would  have  been  long  since  weeded  out.  The 
child  is  thus  born  to  be  a  member  of  society.  Socia- 
bility is  implanted  within  him  from  birth  and  he  grows 
only  by  building  a  social  self. 

It  follows  that  a  person  wishes  his  social  self  to  stand 
well  in  the  eyes  of  his  fellows.  This  is  a  conspicuous  trait 
among  savages  as  among  civilized  people,  self-regarding 
pride  in  fact  being  universal.  We  all  necessarily  care 
what  others  think  of  us.  To  secure  this  favorable  opin- 
ion, therefore,  one  makes  himself  an  obliging  member  of 
the  group,  subordinating  himself  for  the  sake  of  collec- 
tive harmony. 

This  subordination  may  be  racial,  as  instanced  by 
the  negro  tucking  himself  into  lowly  positions  in  the 
South  or  the  Australian  native's  menial  attitude  in  the 
presence  of  EngHshmen.  Or  it  may  be  subordination 
to  class,  admirably  set  forth  in  an  old  English  tale  written 
about  1875,  — "  The  peasantry  and  little  people  in 
country  places  like  to  feel  the  gentry  far  above  them. 
They  do  not  care  to  be  caught  up  into  the  empyrean  of 
an  equal  humanity,  but  enjoy  the  poetry  of  their  self- 
abasement  in  the  belief  that  their  superiors  are  indeed 
their  betters.''  Or  it  may  be  subordination  to  the 
democratic  multitude.  In  the  small  and  rude  commu- 
nities of  the  former,  each  man  depends  primarily  upon 
himself  and  even  in  the  common  councils  feels  his  per- 
sonal independence  and  significance.  In  a  far-flung 
democracy,  however,  one's  own  being  shrinks  and  seems 
lost  in  the  great  human  hive.    Overwhelmed  with  the 


LOYALTY  103 

sense  of  its  insignificance,  individuality  wilts  and  ere- 
long succumbs  to  this  "  fatalism  of  the  multitude."  ^ 
Or  again  it  may  be  subordination  to  parents,  common 
enough  to  us  all;  or  to  masterful  persons  or  ideals,  as 
will  be  considered  in  detail  later  on  and  need  not  here 
concern  us.  What  should  be  emphasized  is  simply 
this :  subordination  is  extremely  common  and  the  exec- 
utive deals  with  men  long  habituated  to  it. 

Subordination,  in  turn,  includes  much  more  than 
mere  passivity  or  negative  self-feeling.  It  implies 
willingness  to  serve,  a  willingness  which  easily  becomes 
devotion,  a  trait  inbred  in  human  nature  and  so  empha- 
sized by  home,  school,  church,  and  occupation  that 
only  the  exceptional  man  knows  not  loyalty.  There 
is  something  savoring  of  the  sublime  in  the  little  life 
stories  continually  filtering  in  from  camp  and  factory 
and  office;  here  a  watchman  withstanding  plunderers, 
there  a  captain  bravely  going  down  with  his  ship,  again 
an  aged  employee  rounding  out  a  half  century  of  serv- 
ice with  the  same  firm,  all  indicating  devotion  un- 
shaken to  this  monitor  within  the  breast.  Loyalty  is 
a  real  force  among  men. 

In  the  socialization  of  human  nature,  subordination, 
and  the  development  of  loyalty,  control  is  made  possible. 
Its  application,  we  may  note  further,  is  conditioned  by 
two  additional  elements : 

(i)  Homogeneity  insures  Like  Response  to  Stimula- 
tion. —  A  flock  of  wild  geese  when  frightened  rise 
simultaneously  from  the  water.  The  appearance  of  the 
cowboy  over  the  ridge  is  followed  by  common  action 
throughout  the  cattle  herd.  The  comedian's  joke 
brings  a  general  laugh.  A  cry  at  the  left  and  every  head 
turns  that  way.     In  fact,  if  it  were  not  so,  if  instead 

^Bryce,  The  American  Commonwealth,  II,  Ixxxiv. 


\ 


104    STIMULATING  AND   CONTROLLING  MEN 

each  member  reacted  differently  to  the  same  stimula- 
tion, collective  action  would  be  impossible  and  society 
could  not  be. 

Because  of  this  like  response,  however,  leaders  through 
stimulation  are  able  to  secure  concurrent  action.  Uni- 
fied effort  is  thus  possible;  subordinates  may  be  con- 
solidated upon  a  single  policy.  An  executive,  in  his 
attempt  to  release  the  energy  latent  in  followers,  can 
proceed  upon  the  assumption  that  team  work  will 
follow. 

(2)  As  with  Stimulation  so  with  Control,  its  Source  is 
within  the  Minds  of  Followers  and  there  are  Several 
Means  of  securing  It.  —  To  those  whose  idea  of  stimu- 
lation is  bound  up  with  whip  or  goad,  control  will  also 
appear  as  hand  clutch  or  prison.  But  many  a  man  while 
held  is  stubbornly  striking  back ;  and  prison  walls  often 
house  rebellious  spirits.  In  those  cases  where  stocks 
and  bars  do  control,  it  is  still  not  by  virtue  of  these 
things  primarily.  At  most  they  are  secondary.  It  is 
the  controlled  spirit  which  yields  up  the  desired  type 
of  action. 

Control  in  its  essence,  therefore,  is  not  mechanical, 
does  not  consist  in  things.  It  is  psychological,  consists 
in  the  shaping  influence  which  one  mind  exerts  over 
another.  A  considerable  array  of  paraphernalia,  it  is 
true,  may  assist  in  affecting  this  result,  but  such  things 
are  mere  externals  and  means  to  an  end.  Control  is  a 
matter  of  inhibition  and  direction,  and  these  are  products 
of  each  individual  consciousness. 

Since  stimulation  and  control  are  thus  matters  of 
the  mental  life,  the  executive  must  needs  possess  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  and  skill  in  appealing  to  it.  Prick- 
ing, caressing,  urging,  restraining,  he  would  move 
through  the  innermost  hearts  of  men,  their  master. 
But  what  of  his  technique,  how  does  he  do  it?    The 


EXERCISES  AND   READINGS  105 

following  ten  chapters  will  attempt  to  give  detailed 
answers  to  this  question.  Commencing  with  the  most 
elusive  of  the  means  through  which  one  individual 
exercises  ascendency  over  others  and  gradually  working 
toward  the  more  matter-of-fact,  these  chapters  will 
survey  the  various  methods  by  which  the  group  is 
motivated. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why   is  handling   men   necessarily   a   complex   problem? 
Show  that  heterogeneity  of  organization  makes  it  increasingly  so. 

2.  Select  an  advertisement  which  appeals  to  an  instinct.    An 
emotion.     The  intellect. 

3.  What  follows  when  the  promptings  of  the  various  instincts 
conflict? 

4.  Show  that  "no  man  liveth  unto  himself  alone"  is    justified 
by  scientific  analysis. 

5.  Illustrate   by   concrete   example:     collective   struggle   for 
existence,  gregarious  instinct,  concurrent  action,  loyalty. 

READINGS 

Ross,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  VIII,  or  Ward,  Pure  Sociol- 
ogy, Ch.  XII. 

Ellwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  XII,  or 
Parmlee,  Human  Behavior,  Ch.  XX. 


CHAPTER  X 

Personality 

Lear.    "Dost  thou  know  me,  fellow?" 

Kent.  "No,  sir;  but  you  have  that  in  your  countenance 
which  I  would  fain  call  master." 

In  an  elusive  yet  effectual  way,  some  men  have  exer- 
cised power  through  presence  alone.  "  The  mere  look 
of  the  man  and  the  sound  of  his  voice  made  all  who 
saw  and  heard  him  feel  that  Webster  must  be  the  em- 
bodiment of  wisdom,  dignity,  and  strength,  divinely 
eloquent,  even  if  he  sat  in  dreamy  silence  or  uttered 
nothing  but  heavy  commonplaces."  ^ 

Garibaldi  "  enjoyed  the  worship  and  cast  the  spell 
of  a  legendary  hero."  Mirabeau  "  is  possessed  of  a 
secret  charm  that  opens  him  the  hearts  of  almost  all 
people."  Cortes  spoke,  and  the  assembly,  which  had 
gathered  in  a  spirit  of  mutiny,  broke  up  with  cheers  and 
shouts  of,  "  To  Mexico !    To  Mexico  !  " 

To  overcome  the  unanimous  opposition  he  met  with, 
De  Lesseps  "  had  only  to  show  himself.  He  would 
speak  briefly,  and  in  face  of  the  charm  he  exerted  his 
opponents  became  his  friends.  The  English  in  partic- 
ular strenuously  opposed  his  scheme;  he  had  only  to 
put  in  an  appearance  in  England  to  rally  all  suffrages. 
In  later  years,  when  he  passed  Southampton,  the  bells 
were  rung  on  his  passage."  ^ 

1  Lodge,  Daniel  Webster y  192-193. 
*  Le  Bon,  The  Crowd,  157-158. 
106 


CONTROL  BY  PERSONALITY  107 

Said  Vandamme  of  Napoleon :  "  That  devil  of  a  man 
exercises  a  fascination  on  me  that  I  cannot  explain  even 
to  myself,  and  in  such  degree,  that,  though  I  fear  neither 
God  nor  devil,  when  I  am  in  his  presence  I  am  ready  to 
tremble  like  a  child,  and  he  could  make  me  go  through 
the  eye  of  a  needle  to  throw  myself  into  the  fire."  ^ 

Such  is  the  compelling  personality.  Apparently 
ignoring  all  the  usual  means  of  control,  he  yet  casts  a 
spell  over  men  and  binds  them  to  his  will. 

}  SOURCES  OF  PERSONALITY 

Upon  what  depends  such  exceptional  power?  This 
question,  it  is  evident,  would  probe  the  very  depths  of 
human  nature,  would  lay  bare  the  "  riddle  ''  of  person- 
ality upon  which  so  many  occult  societies  and  seers  still 
flourish  —  and  our  natures  have  hidden  recesses  never 
yet  explored.  Nevertheless,  an  explanation  may  be 
attempted.  The  results,  however  incomplete,  will  have 
a  value. 

The  power  of  personality  so  mystifies  the  beholder 
that  he  yields  though  unable  to  tell  why.  This  indi- 
cates the  power  is  not  due  to  rational  appeal.  Its  ex- 
planation must  be  sought  in  the  subconscious,  in  expe- 
riences which  hark  back  to  racial  origins.  It  is  in  the 
instincts  and  emotions  that  this  racial  experience 
slumbers,  embedded  there  like  fossils  of  a  by-gone  age. 
Through  a  personal  presence  the  subconscious  product 
is  stimulated.  The  effect  is  uncanny,  perhaps,  because 
the  subject  does  not  realize  himself  possessed  of  the 
qualities  through  the  stimulation  of  which  it  is  pro- 
duced. 

These  qualities,  of  course,  are  complex  because  the 
life  history  of  man  has  been  so.  To  set  them  forth  in 
1  Le  Bon,  The  Crowd,  152-153. 


io8  PERSONALITY 

detail  would  require  consideration  of  every  influence 
impinging  upon  human  beings  from  Pliocene  age  to 
date.  Nevertheless,  the  ground  patterns  of  human 
nature  have  been  shaped  by  certain  major  interests, 
these  centering  in  food,  safety,  shelter,  and  sex  satis- 
faction. This,  for  one  thing,  has  involved  fighting  long 
continued ;  not  general  warfare,  it  is  true,  since  this  is 
possible  only  among  relatively  well-developed  states, 
but  petty  raids.  Men  have  long  lived  in  the  shadow  of 
combat,  either  actual  or  threatened.  They  have  also 
lived  in  fear  of  the  unseen.  The  unexpected  and  the 
unexplainable  were  never  far  removed,  with  death 
hovering  at  the  margin.  In  addition,  these  men  have 
lived  as  a  social  unit.  Success  depended  in  large  meas- 
ure upon  keeping  the  common  bonds  intact.  Social 
virtues  were  deeply  impressed  upon  each  member. 

In  the  collective  struggle  for  existence,  therefore, 
during  an  intense  experience  which  began  some  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  thousand  years  ago  and  yet  continues, 
was  developed  an  ideal,  more  or  less  vague  no  doubt 
but  still  an  ideal,  of  what  sort  of  man  the  leader  should 
be.  Types  of  instinctive  and  emotional  reaction  were 
fixed  in  human  nature  as  to  what  should  be  his  recep- 
tion once  did  he  appear.  Failure  in  either  of  these 
directions  would  have  meant  group  extinction;  no 
community  which  consistently  fled  before  a  puny  war- 
rior or  scorned  its  wisest  men  could  possibly  continue 
to  exist.  The  members,  consequently,  learned  to  react 
promptly  and  strongly  to  the  properly  qualified  man. 
What  were  his  primary  qualifications? 

I.  Physical  Prowess.  —  In  critical  situations  again 
and  again  the  value  of  physique  has  been  pressed  home 
upon  consciousness.  Consider  the  vivid  impression 
made  upon  each  follower  when  his  chief,  as  is  often 
true  in   savage   society,   favorably   terminates  a  war 


IMPRESSIVE  PHYSIQUE  109 

through  the  strength  of  his  arm,  or,  to  cite  an  example 
of  more  recency,  when  his  general  wields  the  battle  ax 
as  did  Bruce  before  Bannockburn !  ^ 

Justice  as  well  hinged  upon  personal  prowess.  If 
custom  did  not  settle  a  difference,  a  fight  would,  and 
might  made  right.  And  favor  with  the  opposite  sex, 
moreover,  was  no  matter  of  tea  table  and  tango,  but  of 
hard  muscle  and  sure  eye.  "  The  women,"  said  an 
Igorrote  chief,  "  won't  marry  our  men  if  they  do  not 
take  heads." 

In  respect  to  this  one  element,  the  race  has  been  sub- 
jected to  a  series  of  experiences  in  which,  other  things 
being  equal,  physical  prowess  has  meant  success  and 
survival.  Accordingly  our  racial  consciousness  favors 
physique  and  renders  it  an  element  of  natural  prestige.^ 
The  statistics  of  executives,  it  will  be  recalled  from  Chapter 
III,  indicate  men  of  relatively  large  size,  taller  and  heavier 
than  intellectuals  and  surpassing  in  both  these  respects 
also  the  men  who  held  similar  but  less  important  posi- 
tions. Such  men  in  the  competition  for  executive  pre- 
ferment are  favored  because  their  size  is  impressive. 

2.  Emotional  Control.  —  As  a  usual  thing,  the  stream 
of  consciousness  flows  along  smoothly.  But  the  unex- 
pected dams  the  stream,  the  current  is  thrown  back 


1  Bruce  was  riding  up  and  down  his  lines  when  an  English  noble, 
mounted  on  a  powerful  charger  and  heavily  armed,  rode  out  to  challenge 
a  Scottish  noble  to  single  combat.  To  the  horror  of  his  army,  the  king 
himseK  sprang  forward  to  accept  the  challenge.  The  two  warriors 
charged  upon  each  other  in  full  view  of  their  respective  armies.  But 
Bruce,  nimbly  avoiding  his  opponent's  lance,  rose  in  his  stirrups  and 
with  one  mighty  blow  of  his  battle  ax  crushed  the  helmet  of  the  English 
knight  and  clove  his  head  from  crown  to  chin.  Robert  Bruce,  in  the  eyes 
of  his  rugged  troopers,  was  a  king  fit  to  rule. 

2  It  is  doubtful  if  the  meeting  of  men  is  ever  free  from  an  undercurrent 
bearing  this  thought,  "What would  result  if  we  laid  hold  of  each  other?" 
Civilization,  indeed,  will  go  far  before  it  reduces  men  to  brains  and 
stomach. 


no  PERSONALITY 

upon  itself,  and  there  ensues  turmoil  in  the  mind.  Such 
a  result  among  organizations  of  men  is  common;  the 
unexpected  often  does  appear,  since  rarely  in  the  collec- 
tive life  is  the  road  well  charted  and  fully  poKced. 
Wrecks,  fires,  wars,  floods,  panics,  are  merely  the  more 
dramatic  incidents  of  a  life  in  the  jungle,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  unknown  and  the  unseen.  The  mental 
currents  are  often  caused  to  surge  back  upon  themselves, 
and  we  know  not  what  to  do. 

Indecision  does  not  sweep  all  men  alike.  Because  of 
his  physical  prowess  —  height,  weight,  strength,  vigor 
—  the  favored  person  may  withstand  the  influence 
shaping  others  in  attitudes  of  fear  or  anger  or  grief. 
By  refusing  to  assume  these  attitudes,  he  escapes  the 
emotions  which  normally  accompany  them.  Or  the 
significance  of  the  situation  may  possibly  escape  him. 
In  this  case  he  is  fearless  because  he  does  not  know. 
Or  the  event  may  fail  to  impress  his  consciousness  be- 
cause this  is  dominated  by  conceptions  already  held. 
The  mind  focused  upon  some  central  purpose  is  freed 
from , marginal  excitations  because  it  will  not  attend  to 
them. 

Emotional  power,  strength,  control,  result.  The 
favored  individual  becomes  director,  not  follower.  He 
is  fearless  in  the  midst  of  those  who  fear,  decided  though 
surrounded  by  indecision,  calm  when  waves  of  anger 
sweep  followers,  self-contained  while  others  wonder, 
positive  in  self-feeling  in  the  midst  of  fawning  adulation 
and  effacement. 

J.  Intellectual  Ability.  —  The  mass  of  phenomena 
in  which  we  live  furnishes  an  intellectual  test  par  excel- 
lence. It  must  be  perceived,  for  one  thing,  and  in  this 
some  fall  behind  at  once.  They  "  never  noticed  that.'* 
This  matter  perceived  is  next  to  be  woven  into  concepts. 
Here  is  another  test,  the  ability  to  organize  knowledge. 


NATURAL  PRESTIGE  iii 

The  mental  stock  is  to  be  surveyed  and  kept  in  shape. 
This  demands  memory,  the  ability  to  know  what  one 
has  and  produce  it  when  needed.  These  concepts  are 
then  brought  to  bear  upon  questions  which  arise.  Judg- 
ment results ;  and  this  is  surely  a  test  of  note.  Finally, 
there  is  the  attitude  toward  new  material,  for  the  indi- 
vidual's world  is  not  fixed  but  in  process.  Can  the 
intellect  make  room  for  this  new  material,  under  its 
influence  modifying  old  concepts  or  shaping  up  the  new 
concepts  which  the  facts  demand?  Here,  too,  is  a 
test  which  probes  deep  into  one's  intellectual  capacity. 

Men  under  these  tests  are  classified  and  ranked  in 
an  intellectual  hierarchy.  In  times  of  need,  the  lower 
ranked  turn  toward  the  topmost  —  "He  knows." 
Adherence  is  gained  through  superiority  of  intellect. 

4.  Socialized  Nature.  —  Men  must  work  together 
for  common  ends,  a  necessity  in  which  lie  both  the 
origin  and  development  of  conduct.  Now  the  action 
termed  "  good  "  is  that  which  in  general  favors  this 
working  together ;  "  bad  "  conduct  is  that  which  on 
the  whole  makes  collective  action  difficult  or  impossible. 
With  this  practical  test  as  a  standard  the  group  passes 
upon  the  sentiments  held  by  its  members.  Love,  hate, 
gratitude,  scorn,  envy,  revenge,  sorrow,  and  sympathy, 
singly,  or  in  widely  varying  combinations,  all  are  ap- 
praised, both  in  respect  to  the  sentiments  themselves 
and  the  particular  occasion  when  manifested. 

Here  again  men  may  be  ranked.  Selfishness,  boorish- 
ness,  criminality,  all  actions  detrimental  to  the  collec- 
tive welfare  are  considered  reprehensible;  the  indi- 
viduals characterized  by  them  are  ranked  low  and, 
moreover,  if  below  a  certain  standard,  are  jailed  or 
possibly  electrocuted.  To  the  contrary,  refinement, 
manners,  tolerance,  sympathy,  ability,  and  wilHngness 
to  play  the  social  'r61e  gracefully  and  devotedly,  all 


112  PERSONALITY 

bespeak  the  socialized  nature.  It  was  no  accident  that 
the  uncouth  General  Jackson  possessed  courtly  manners 
when  President. 

The  sources  of  personality,  it  is  believed,  are  here 
revealed,  and  if  so  the  whole  phenomenon  is  placed  upon 
a  naturalistic  basis.  Personality  consists  in  those  posi- 
tive qualities  which  have  meant  survival  to  the  group  in 
its  struggle  for  existence.  The  present  exercise  of  this 
power,  consequently,  is  colored  by  long-past  racial 
experience.  To  this  fact  is  due  its  mysterious  element ; 
it  entails  reaction  to  conditions  once  vital  yet  simple, 
however  changed  these  conditions  may  now  be.  With 
this  qualification  in  mind,  that  group  survival  is  to  be 
interpreted  in  its  broad  sense,  personality  indicates 
merely  a  pronounced  development  of  essential  quaUties. 
Such  constitutes  natural  prestige. 

EFFECT  UPON  FOLLOWERS 

Natural  prestige,  viewed  in  the  light  of  its  evolution, 
has  meant  two  very  different  things,  either  repression, 
when  opposed  to  the  individual,  or  elation,  when  sup- 
porting this  individual  and  opposed  to  his  enemies. 
Which  reaction  would  be  aroused  by  his  appearance 
obviously  depended  upon  whose  side  the  man  of  power 
was  found.  Personality  thus  possesses  both  positive 
and  negative  appeals,  its  influence  extending  from  the 
extreme  of  one  through  intermediate  stages  to  the  ex- 
treme of  the  other.  This  would  necessarily  be  so, 
although  in  much  current  discussion  of  that  "  indefin- 
able something  termed  personality  "  this  fact  is  not 
grasped  and  confusion  results.  With  this  distinction 
in  mind,  however,  it  is  clear  that  personality  has  not  one 
but  a  range  of  appeals,  and  in  this  range  certain  typical 


EFFECTS  OF  PERSONALITY  113 

appeals  may  be  roughly  set  apart  for  discussion.    These 
are  as  follows : 

1.  Fear.  —  There  is  no  emotion  more  deep-rooted 
and  powerful.  Once  roused,  it  haunts  the  mind  and, 
by  bringing  back  in  dreams  and  in  waking  hfe  alike  the 
terrifying  impression,  it  becomes  the  great  inhibitor  of 
action,  both  present  and  future.^  Whoever  can  wield 
such  a  weapon  effectively  thereby  establishes  ascen- 
dancy in  marked  degree.  And  this  certain  leaders  have 
been  able  to  do. 

William  Pitt  in  his  ready  control  over  Erskine  and 
Sheridan  "  seemed  to  exercise  a  sort  of  fascination  of 
terror."  Said  a  circuit  member  in  speaking  of  the 
famous  cross-examiner,  "  Russell  produced  the  same 
effect  upon  a  witness  that  a  cobra  produces  on  a  rabbit." 
Webster,  when  thoroughly  roused  and  indignant,  had  a 
darkness  in  his  face  and  a  gleam  of  dusky  light  in  his 
deep-set  eyes  unnerving  to  contemplate.^ 

All  strong  men,  to  a  certain  extent,  possess  this  power. 
Even  though  for  us,  we  are  a  bit  apprehensive  of  what 
might  occur  were  they  against  us. 

2.  Subjection.  —  Subordination,  as  has  been  pointed 
out,  far  from  being  solely  an  affair  of  the  strong  arm,  is 
in  harmony  with  certain  traits  of  human  nature.  Nega- 
tive self-feeHng  is  at  least  as  universal  as  positive  self- 
feeling.  Men  desire  the  support  of  the  strong  and  are 
ready  to  yield.  As  was  said  of  Webster,  ^'  he  was  so  big 
and  so  strong,  so  large  in  every  way,  that  people  sank 
into  repose  in  his  presence,  and  felt  rest  and  confidence  in 
the  mere  fact  of  his  existence."    Real  satisfaction  this. 

1  McDougall,  Social  Psychology,  55. 

2  Dr.  Cadman,  of  Dorchester,  told  of  a  young  minister,  fresh  from 
Andover,  who  when  he  found  Webster's  piercing  eyes  fixed  upon  him, 
was  struck  dumb  in  the  midst  of  his  discourse  and  sank  into  his  seat, 
leaving  the  doctor,  more  accustomed  to  face  the  distinguished  hearer, 
to  finish  the  sermon.    Harvey,  Daniel  Webster,  400. 


114  PERSONALITY 

The  leader,  moreover,  is  elevated  far  beyond  his  real 
merit ;  it  is  the  tendency  of  idealism  thus  to  do.  Every 
follower  becomes  a  self-accuser,  drawing  a  sweet  sad- 
ness from  contemplating  his  inferiority  and  exalting  his 
chief  into  a  mystical  hero. 

Here  is  a  rift  which  in  individual  experience  widens 
as  the  years  pass.  Constant  subjection  breeds  the 
servile  nature.  Subordination  means  increased  subor- 
dination. But  the  face  of  the  leader,  to  the  contrary, 
becomes  more  impressive,  his  glance  more  command- 
ing, his  carriage  more  dignified.  Judges,  bishops,  busi- 
ness executives,  grow  with  the  years.^ 

5.  Wonder.  —  The  unfamiliar  possesses  attraction 
power.  The  instinct  of  curiosity  is  an  active  seeker 
after  experiences,  and  in  each  unusual  there  is  opened 
up  a  new  possibility.  When  the  explanation  has  once 
been  made,  interest  lags.  Curiosity  does  not  flourish 
in  well-tilled  fields.  The  strange,  the  unusual,  or  the 
inscrutable  ^  both  attract  and  arouse  fear,  a  mental 


^  The  judges  in  the  Cadi's  divan  at  Tunis  thus  impressed  Greenville- 
Nugent  :  "What  is  finer  than  the  face  of  one  who  has  been  accustomed 
to  wield  authority  over  the  common  herd?  Decisions  that  none  may 
question,  glosses  which  none  may  contradict,  pardon  which  none  other 
dare  bestow,  doom  which  no  other  dare  pronounce,  the  power  which 
for  years  has  been  theirs  alone,  is  stamped  upon  their  thoughtful  coun- 
tenances; and  this  moral  force  is  more  potent  to  sway  the  masses  who 
crouch  at  their  feet  than  are  all  the  swords  of  the  Janissaries  who  guard 
their  portals."     Cited  by  Ross,  Social  Control,  113-114. 

2  The  power  of  mere  inscrutability,  as  Cooley  points  out,  arises  from 
the  fact  it  "gives  a  vague  stimulus  to  thought  and  then  leaves  it  to  work 
out  the  details  to  suit  itself.  .  .  .  Those  who  are  mentally  abnormal 
present  in  a  striking  form  the  inscrutable  in  personality;  they  seem  to 
be  men,  but  not  such  as  we ;  our  imaginations  are  alarmed  and  baffled. 
In  the  same  way  a  strange  and  somewhat  impassive  physiognomy  is 
often,  perhaps,  an  advantage  to  an  orator,  or  leader  of  any  sort,  because 
it  helps  to  foe  the  eye  and  fascinate  the  mind.  Another  instance  of  the 
prestige  of  the  inscrutable  is  the  fascination  of  silence,  when  power  is 
imagined  to  lie  behind  it.  It  is  the  same  with  personal  reserve  in  every 
form ;  one  who  always  appears  to  be  his  own  master  and  does  not  too 


INSCRUTABILITY  115 

state  which,  now  set  on  advance,  now  on  retreat,  leaves 
its  possessor  subject  to  him  who  has  invoked  it. 

Wonder  in  this  way  increases  personal  ascendancy. 
The  reserve  and  taciturnity  of  the  Swedish  monarch, 
Charles  XII,  "baffled  all  conjecture."  Cecil  Rhodes 
proves  "  an  engima  to  every  one  who  has  come  in  con- 
tact with  him."  Disraeli  was  "  a  mystery  man  by 
instinct  and  policy."  Washington,  writes  Senator 
Lodge,  was  "  the  most  absolutely  silent  man  that  his- 
tory can  show."  General  Grant  at  the  close  of  councils 
in  the  commander  in  chief's  tent  left  his  voluble  generals 
mystified  by  his  taciturnity.  And  perhaps  less  dramatic, 
yet  basing  its  appeal  upon  this  same  power  of  wonder,  is 
the  business  rule  of  the  head  of  Chicago's  Clearing 
House :  "  Let  the  other  man  do  the  talking." 

4.  Admiration. — Admiration  is  a  compound  emo- 
tion. It  results  from  the  fusing  of  wonder  and  subjec- 
tion. The  one  draws  the  beholder  toward  the  object, 
the  other  humbles  him  before  it.^  Through  a  twofold 
relation,  therefore,  admiration  insures  ascendancy. 
"  Dear  to  us  are  those  who  love  us,"  says  Emerson, 
"  but  dearer  are  those  who  reject  us  as  unworthy,  for 
they  add  another  life ;  they  build  a  heaven  before  us 
whereof  we  had  not  dreamed,  and  thereby  supply  us 
new  powers  out  of  the  recesses  of  the  spirit,  and  urge  us 
to  new  and  unat  temp  ted  performances." 

The  admired  person  exists  in  the  mind  as  an  ideal, 
and  hence  may  be  quite  superior  to  the  real  person. 
Although  William  the  Silent  had  bungled  the  campaign, 
even  those  victories  won  being  achieved  through  neglect 
of  his  orders,  he  was  early  hailed  as  the  Father  of  his 

readOy  reveal  his  deeper  feelings,  is  so  much  the  more  likely  to  create 
an  impression  of   power.     He   is   formidable   because   incalculable." 
Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  313-315,  passim. 
1  McDougall,  Soc.  Psy.,  128. 


*;^is 


ii6  PERSONALITY 


Country  and  in  his  honor  the  whole  population  sang 
the  Wilhelmuslied.  The  magical  effect  of  Garibaldi's 
voice  and  presence  were  such  that  before  a  single  great 
victory  had  been  won  the  worship  of  him  rivaled  that 
of  Mazzini.  And  the  career  of  a  certain  popular  states- 
man proves  that  in  America,  as  well,  successive  defeats 
may  serve  merely  to  increase  admiration  for  the  stand- 
ard bearer. 

5.  Awe.  —  When  admiration  is  blended  with  fear, 
the  result  is  termed  "  awe."  The  new  product  may 
be  compounded  in  varying  proportions,  in  some  cases 
the  fear  element  predominating  and  in  others  the  ad- 
miration element  being  superior.  But  in  the  emotion, 
at  any  rate,  is  much  of  power.  Gladstone  always  made 
his  hearers  beheve  that  the  subject  he  discussed  was 
that  upon  which  the  foundations  of  heaven  and  earth 
rested,  a  fact  which  accounts  for  much  of  his  long- 
continued  supremacy.  Webster's  similar  power  of 
exciting  awe  is  shown  in  the  remark  of  a  bitter  aboli- 
tionist opponent  present  at  the  7  th  of  March  speech : 
"  When  Webster,  speaking  of  secession,  asked  ^  What  is 
to  become  of  me,'  I  was  thrilled  with  the  sense  of  some 
awful  impending  calamity." 

6.  Reverence. — When  Hiram  Johnson  in  the  campaign 
of  191 2  came  before  the  Connecticut  State  Convention, 
posters  and  papers  had  proclaimed  him  as  "  The  man 
who  single-handed  cleaned  up  California !  The  man 
who  in  one  session  of  the  legislature  forced  the  enact- 
ment in  the  law  of  every  single  pledge  of  the  platform 
upon  which  he  was  elected.  The  man  who  changed 
California  from  one  of  the  worst  boss-ridden  states  of 
the  Union  into  one  of  the  freest  and  most  progressive  in 
less  than  six  months'  time."  The  effect  upon  the  dele- 
gates when  he  appeared  and  spoke  was  tremendous. 
Men  and  women  became  worshipers. 


'm 


THE  HUMAN  TOUCH  117 


The  psychological  explanation  of  this  and  similar 
instances  may  be  stated  thus:  Here  was  a  power, 
admired  yet  feared,  something  to  rouse  awe.  Yet  all 
the  time  it  was  felt  that  this  power  was  seeking  to  do 
good,  and  hence  was  entitled  to  gratitude.  The  blend- 
ing of  these  two  emotions,  awe  and  gratitude,  creates 
reverence.^  When  personal  ascendancy  has  reached 
this  plane  of  positiveness,  the  strongest  lever  of  control 
is  threat  of  resignation.  The  group  may  disagree  with 
the  revered  one,  but  live  without  him  it  cannot. 

7.  Sympathy.  —  A  popular  leader  is  often  claimed  to 
be  "  so.  human.''  The  meaning  is  evidently  that  through 
all  the  varying  social  relations  he  is  able  to  maintain 
the  personal  touch.  What  he  presents  is  congenial  to 
the  minds  of  followers.  A  bond  of  good  will  and  fellow- 
ship is  established ;  he  evokes  trust  and  like  feeling. 

Power  to  arouse  sympathy  is,  of  course,  increased  by 
similar  experiences;  as  the  clear  and  ready  speech  of 
Haywood,  his  I.  W.  W.  followers  say,  was  "  learned 
way  down  in  the  depths  of  the  dripping  mines  where 
the  straining  timbers  screech."  The  loyalty  of  not  a 
few  organizations  is  increased  by  the  feeling,  "  The  old 
man  knows.  He's  been  through  the  mill."  When 
natures  similarly  socialized  are  brought  together,  S3nii- 
pathy  naturally  develops. 

All  really  popular  leaders  have  possessed  this  sym- 
pathetic personal  touch.  So  cordial  was  the  handclasp 
of  Blaine  that  each  person  felt  he  had  met  a  friend  whom 
he  was  glad  to  see.  "  His  genial  presence,"  said  an 
Enghsh  bishop  of  Phillips  Brooks,  "  seemed  to  fill  the 
room."  Thanks  to  his  name,  in  WilHam  the  Silent  one 
may  imagine  a  dark,  brooding  figure,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  a  pleasant  way,  a  ready  identification  of  faces, 
a  cordial  greeting  to  all  comers,  were  such  natural  habits 
1  McDougall,  op.  cU.,  132. 


ii8  PERSONALITY 

to  him  that  even  opponents  admitted,  "  Every  time  the 
Prince  lifts  his  hat  he  wins  a  friend.'' 

8.  Love.  —  Sympathy  normally  merges  into  love,  and 
a  vast  amount  of  this  affection  enters  into  everyday 
human  relations.  It  is  love's  tendency  to  seek  out  the 
object  of  its  affection  and  find  pleasure  in  its  presence 
and  in  its  service.  It  causes  a  general  outflowing  of 
emotions  into  the  fuller  Hfe,  an  activity  and  control 
so  admirable  as  to  have  won  praise  from  moralists  in 
all  ages,^  and  similarly  to  have  insured  the  ascendancy 
of  not  a  few  leaders,  even  prosaic  men  of  affairs.  In- 
deed, whoever  wins  the  love  of  men,  because  he  deserves 
it,  has  at  his  command  the  deepest  currents  of  life. 

USE    OF   PERSONALITY 

Through  natural  prestige  is  opened  the  possibility 
of  much  power.  Its  series  of  influences  —  considered 
above  point  by  point  but  in  practice  often  inextricably 
mingled  —  ranging  from  fear  to  love,  appeal  to  that 
which  Hes  deepest  in  human  experience.  But  execu- 
tives too  often  overlook  these  ancestral  springs,  even 
scorn  these  elusive  elements  of  motivation.  Basing 
their  appeal  upon  externals,  frequently  upon  the  crudest 
and  most  materialistic  of  externals,  they  pose  as  "practical 
men."     Such,  however,  they  are  not.^    For  being  prac- 

*"He  that  loves,"  wrote  St.  Augustine,  "flies,  runs,  and  is  joyful; 
is  free  and  not  restrained.  He  gives  all  for  all  and  has  all  in  all,  since 
he  is  at  rest  above  all  in  the  one  highest  good  from  which  every  good 
flows  and  proceeds.  He  regards  not  gifts,  but  beyond  all  good  things 
turns  to  the  giver.  Love  oft  knows  not  the  manner,  but  its  heat  is  more 
than  every  manner.  Love  feels  no  burden,  regards  not  labors,  strives 
toward  more  than  it  attains,  argues  not  of  impossibihty,  since  it  beheves 
that  it  may  and  can  all  things.  Therefore  it  avails  for  all  things,  and 
fulfils  and  accomplishes  much  where  one  not  a  lover  falls  and  lies  help- 
less."    Cited  by  Cooley,  op.  cit.,  128. 

^  "Why  have  the  newspapers  so  delighted  to  vilify  me?"  inquired  an 
ex-railroad  president  recently  forced  out  imder  public  pressure.     "I 


HUMANIZING  THE  ORGANIZATION         119 

tical  means  nothing  more  than  employing  workable 
methods,  and  in  personality  there  is  a  vigor  and  width 
of  appeal  no  wise  executive  will  overlook.  To  him  the 
question  is  how. 

It  is  easy  to  personalize  the  relations  in  a  family, 
social  club,  or  small  workshop,  in  fact  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult not  so  to  do ;  but  should  the  organization  increase 
in  size  and  complexity,  numbering  its  employees  by 
thousands,  with  many  of  them  assigned  to  branches 
widely  separated,  mechanism  too  readily  crowds  out 
personality,  and  the  human  touch  is  lost.  However 
dynamic  the  chief,  to  those  on  the  periphery  his  real 
self  is  in  danger  of  being  too  distant  to  appeal.  Here  is 
an  elusive  yet  very  real  problem. 

The  sway  of  the  personal  self  evidently  must  be 
expanded;  fortunately,  there  are  various  methods  by 
which  this  may  be  done.  "  I  go  out  through  the  plant 
as  often  as  I  can  and  make  it  a  point  of  nodding  to 
every  one,"  says  one  executive.  A  series  of  "  Good 
morning,  George ! "  "  How's  that  sick  mother  of 
yours,  James?  "  or  "  They  tell  me  you're  doing  good 
work,  John ;  keep  it  up,"  as  he  walks  down  the  aisles, 
is  the  plan  of  another.  If  walking  will  not  cover  the 
distance,  there  is  trolley,  train,  and  automobile;    the 

thought  if  a  man  knew  his  business  and  worked  at  it  hard  and  produced 
the  best  product  he  could  with  the  materials  available,  that  was  enough. 
But  apparently  it  was  not.  .  .  .  What  should  a  man  do  to  prepare  for 
the  kind  of  storm  that  hit  me?  " 

"He  might  have  made  more  friends  outside  of  the  line  of  business 
friends  with  the  public." 

"But  I  hadn't  the  time.  I  was  too  busy.  I  have  had  six  weeks' 
vacation  in  forty-four  years.  How  could  I  find  the  time  to  meet  your 
newspaper  reporters  and  cultivate  the  good  will  of  editors?  I  engaged 
a  man  to  do  that  work.  I  said  to  him,  'Now  you  attend  to  all  of  that.' 
Wasn't  that  enough?"    New  York  Times,  Oct.  27,  1913. 

His  successor  evidently  thinks  not.  To  date  he  has  written  a  book, 
delivered  numerous  banquet  addresses,  cultivated  the  reporters,  and  is 
already  noted  for  cordiality.    The  policy  apparently  succeeds. 


I20  PERSONALITY 

business  manager,  as  well  as  the  political  campaigner, 
should  show  himself  to  "  the  people."  This  often  is 
more  readily  accomplished  if  isolated  workers  are  drawn 
in  from  the  outposts  to  one  central  location.  At  branch 
office,  district  meeting,  convention,  or  trip  to  the  home 
plant,  face-to-face  relations  are  established  and  family 
ties  cemented. 

To  an  appreciable  degree,  especially  if  aids  are  selected 
with  this  end  in  view,  personality  may  be  organized. 
Employees  near  the  leader  can  pass  his  spirit  along. 
The  human  touch,  transmitted  through  district  manager, 
works  superintendent,  department  managers,  and  fore- 
men, may  thus  bind  together  the  "  old  man  "  and  his 
newest  raw  recruit.  Or,  varying  the  method  somewhat, 
the  chief's  intentions  are  humanized  and  distributed 
far  and  wide  by  his  personal  dynamo,  the  social  secretary. 

The  human  element  can  also  be  transmitted  whenever 
written  and  printed  matter  is  issued.  Letters  in  general 
may  mirror  the  personahty  of  the  writer,  and,  even 
though  many  correspondents  dictate,  the  human-in- 
terest element  introduced  by  each  can  be  made  repre- 
sentative of  house  policy.  Cards,  booklets,  wrapping 
paper,  advertising,  all  can  be  made  distinctly  indi- 
vidual !  An  occasional  letter  it  may  be  well  worth  while 
to  write  in  long-hand. 

The  ways  and  means  are  many  but  the  principle  is 
clear.  Personality  has  a  value  and  this  the  executive 
may  realize  in  practice.  Whether  it  be  by  wann  hand- 
clasp, cheery  greeting,  open  office,  walk,  telephone, 
public  address,  travel,  or  letter,  the  true  leader  humanizes 
his  group.  Every  event  and  every  detail  throughout 
the  entire  organization  is  then  significant,  because 
personal. 


EXERCISES  AND   READINGS  121 


EXERCISES 

1.  Show  how,  due  to  its  method  of  appeal,  men  of  widely  vary- 
ing qualities  may  all  possess  personality. 

2.  Point  out  the  changing  type  of  his  influence  as  a  man  of 
personality  passes  from  stranger  to  friend. 

3.  Is  the  large  physique  of  more  service  as  energy  producer, 
as  shown  in  Chapter  II,  or  as  a  means  of  impressing  others? 

4.  A  leading  mayor  recently  canceled  all  his  dinner  engage- 
ments that  he  "might  have  more  time  to  work."  Was  his  rea- 
soning sound  ? 

5.  The  following  have  been  written  of  a  reformer,  a  politician, 
a  prelate,  and  a  baseball  magnate,  respectively:  "a  long,  lean, 
hatchet  face,  with  dark  brows  and  brooding  eyes"  ;  "six  feet  tall, 
all  bone  and  sinew,  with  a  square  jaw  and  piercing  gray  eyes"; 
"few  profess  to  be  able  to  fathom  him" ;  "a  smiler  and  a  hand- 
shaker."    How  would  each  affect  followers? 

6.  How  may  personality  be  developed? 

READINGS 
CooLEY,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  IX. 


CHAPTER  XI 

Imitation 

"A  man  overtops  others,  not  only  by  his  stature,  but  as  well 
by  what  he  stands  on."  — Edward  A.  Ross. 

Men  have  a  tendency  to  do  as  others  do,  normally 
in  common  enterprises  trooping  along  together.  So 
deep-rooted  in  human  nature  is  this  tendency,  that  some 
psychologists  have  termed  it  the  instinct  of  imitation. 
In  its  lowest  form  it  is  merely  an  impulse  toward  like 
action,  as  in  a  football  game  one  finds  himself  pushing 
against  his  neighbor's  shoulder  when  the  home  team 
makes  a  line  plunge.  In  its  highest  form,  to  the  con- 
trary, it  is  conscious  and  volitional  in  the  extreme;  as 
the  apprentice  hand  day  after  day  seeks  to  duphcate  the 
work  of  journeyman  or  manager.  Between  these  dif- 
ferent aspects  are  numberless  gradations.  However, 
in  each  the  activity  of  the  initiator  induces  like  action 
in  the  subject. 

Upon  what  depends  the  direction  and  scope  of  imi- 
tation? Its  causes  are  complex,  and  may  be  analyzed 
into  a  number  of  factors.  In  general,  nevertheless, 
these  may  be  reduced  to  one,  the  superior  is  imitated  by 
the  inferior.  This  process  may  be  considered  somewhat 
in  detail. 

IMITATION  PRESTIGE 

Superiority,  as  a  breeder  of  imitation,  has  its  basis  in 
the  conventions  of  society.    A  person  possesses  imita- 

122 


IMITATION  PRESTIGE  123 

tion  power  because  of  his  relative  position  in  the  social 
hierarchy.  If  it  were  not  so,  the  current  values  would 
be  upset  and  collective  action  rendered  ineffective. 
But  he  is  copied  who  exemplifies  the  things  his  group 
most  approves.     Now  what  in  general  are  these? 

J.  Positions  of  Power.  —  In  government,  church, 
education,  or  industry  there  is  a  hierarchy  of  positions, 
the  upper  tiers,  by  the  mere  fact  of  relative  rank,  en- 
abling their  possessors  to  bedazzle  subordinates  and 
secure  imitation. 

"  The  example  of  an  emperor,'^  says  Dill,^  "  must 
always  be  potent  for  good  or  evil.  We  have  the  testi- 
mony of  Pliny  and  Claudius,  separated  by  an  interval 
of  three  hundred  years,  that  the  world  readily  conforms 
its  life  to  that  of  one  man,  if  that  man  is  the  head  of  the 
state.  Nero's  youthful  enthusiasm  for  declamation 
gave  an  immense  impulse  to  the  passion  for  rhetoric. 
His  enthusiasm  for  acting  and  music  spread  through  all 
ranks,  and  the  Emperor's  catches  were  sung  at  wayside 
inns.  M.  AureHus  made  philosophy  the  mode,  and  the 
Stoic  Emperor  is  responsible  for  some  of  the  philosophic 
imposture  which  moved  the  withering  scorn  of  Lucian. 
The  Emperor's  favorite  drug  grew  so  popular  that  the 
price  of  it  became  almost  prohibitory.  If  the  model 
Vespasian's  homely  habits  had  such  an  effect  in  reform- 
ing society,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  evil  example  of  his 
spendthrift  predecessors  did  at  least  as  much  to  de- 
prave it." 

In  the  position  itself  there  is  imitation  prestige. 
The  mere  title  "  Senator,"  "  Bishop,"  "  Superintendent," 
"  General  Manager  "  has  a  power  all  its  own.  English- 
men, though  unable  to  discern  clearly  the  distant  figure, 
recently  shouted  themselves  hoarse  because  "  The  Presi- 

1  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  31,  cited  by  Ross, 
Soc.  Psy.,  166. 


124  IMITATION 

dent  of  France  is  in  that  carriage."  The  presumption 
is  that  whoever  holds  the  position  of  power  is  superior. 
He  is  imitated  accordingly. 

2.  Possession  of  Wealth.  —  In  a  democratic  and 
materialistic  society  the  glamour  attaching  to  position 
passes  to  the  possessor  of  goods.  Wealth  implies 
superiority.  "  Verily  a  man  with  money  is  the  top  of 
all  creation."  His  equipage  is  the  finest,  his  costly  en- 
tertainments dazzle.  Heavy  sermon,  cartoon,  and  news- 
paper copy,  while  possibly  critical,  all  tacitly  assume 
his  money  bags  are  the  real  source  of  power.  He 
possesses  what  all  secretly  long  for,  and  his  ways  they 
fawningly  ape. 

A  shrewd  newspaper  owner  has  thus  expressed  it:^ 
"  Those  who  have  not  succeeded  in  amassing  money 
worship  those  who  have,  and  these  worshipers  are  in 
the  majority.  Their  every  thought  is  to  become  like 
the  rich ;  to  emulate  their  every  act  and  success.  It  is  a 
sensation  with  them ;  they  crave  sensation.  .  .  .  Give 
the  people  what  they  want.  Give  them  an  aristocracy. 
Tell  them  how  these  men  and  women  have  become  rich. 
Tell  the  people  how  they  spend  their  money;  what 
they  say ;  how  they  live ;  what  their  ambitions  are. 
Tell  it  with  pictures.  Tell  it  interestingly  and  we  will 
sell  this  paper,"  —  an  analysis  which  is  a  sad  commen- 
tary, no  doubt,  but  true.     It  at  least  sold  papers. 

With  wealth  thus  prized,  its  possessor  is  elevated. 
His  prestige  and  hence  imitation  value  varies  according 
to  stock  holdings  and  country  place.  In  a  most  literal 
sense  it  becomes  true  that  unto  him  that  hath  it  shall 
be  given. 

5.  The  Achievement  of  Success.  —  The  foremost  deity 
in  America  is,  after  all,  the  God  of  Success.     The  require- 

1  Mr.  Pulitzer  of  the  New  York  World,  cited  by  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.^ 
176-177. 


THE  WORSfflP  OF  SUCCESS  125 

ments  of  Mammon  are  too  often  met  by  birth,  marriage, 
favor,  or  luck  to  bedazzle  a  people  so  little  removed 
from  the  pioneer  life.  For  pioneering  demands  personal 
virtues,  strength,  and  capacity,  and  to  tame  the  wilder- 
ness those  energetic  migrants  were  drawn  from  Europe 
who,  there  protestants  and  opposers,  were  ready  to  abolish 
all  titles  of  nobility  and  set  about  guaranteeing  equality 
of  opportunity  for  all. 

But  with  no  titled  aristocracy,  landed  estates,  elab- 
orate ceremonials  in  state  or  church,  our  society  needed 
some  method  of  distinction  to  remove  it  from  the 
conomonplace.  This  was  found  in  achievement.  It 
clothes  with  prestige  the  man  able  to  do  things.  It 
creates  a  new  aristocracy,  the  elect  being  merchant 
princes,  manufacturers,  capitalists,  railroad  magnates, 
inventors,  and  officials.  Its  chief  hero  was  once  a  rail- 
splitter,  its  emphasis  on  self-made  men  so  accentuated 
that  aspiring  politicians  furbish  with  care  rusty  remem- 
brances of  barefoot  boy,  harvest  fields,  and  working 
one's  way  through  college. 

New  pinnacles  of  fame  are  thus  constructed,  the 
ambitious  being  as  eager  to  scale  these  as  ever  was 
knight  to  win  tourney  or  emperor  to  swell  his  coffers 
with  tribute.  For  success  elevates  one  into  the  aris- 
tocracy of  achievement  and  this  insures  prestige  or 
imitation  power. ^ 

^  The  glamour  surrounding  achievement  is,  of  course,  disputed  by  the 
prestige  accorded  birth.  Colonel  Higginson  gives  this  amusing  illus- 
tration: "When  Theodore  Parker  first  visited  Cincinnati,  at  that  time 
the  recognized  leader  among  Western  Cities,  he  said  he  had  made  a  great 
discovery,  namely,  that  while  the  aristocracy  of  Cincinnati  was  unques- 
tionably founded  on  pork,  it  made  a  great  difference  whether  a  man  killed 
pigs  for  himself,  or  whether  his  father  had  killed  them.  The  one  was 
held  plebeian,  the  other  patrician.  It  was  the  difference,  Parker  said, 
between  the  stick  'ems  and  the  stuck  'ems;  and  his  own  sympathies,  he 
confessed,  were  with  the  present  tense.  It  was,  in  other  words,  aris- 
tocracy in  the  making." 

On  the  other  hand,  says  Professor  Ross,  "occasionally  the  strong 


126  IMITATION 

The  particular  elements  upon  which  prestige  depends 
exist  as  a  composite  in  practice,  in  general  being  a  reflec- 
tion of  the  group  desires.  Position,  wealth,  and  achieve- 
ment represent  merely  three  phases  of  these  desires; 
there  are  many  others,  and  the  relative  emphasis  of  all 
changes  with  the  times.  But  whatever  they  be,  in  any 
particular  situation  they  dazzle  and  lure,  elevating  cer- 
tain favored  figures  into  examples  clothed  with  prestige 
and  securing  widespread  imitation.  This  is  no  mere 
rippling  on  the  surface  of  the  social  seas ;  for  the  most 
part  men  adopt  creeds,  manners,  styles  of  clothing, 
modes  of  entertainment,  pohtical  and  philosophic  views, 
not  because  of  utility  but  through  prestige  alone.  Imi- 
tation penetrates  to  the  still  coves  and  has  power  to 
stir  the  social  deeps. 

4,  The  Idealizing  Tendency.  —  Ability  to  radiate 
waves  of  imitation  may  depend  far  less  upon  what  one 
is  than  what  he  is  thought  to  be.  In  a  very  real  sense 
a  person  imagined  exercises  greater  social  power  than 
ever  possible  for  the  actual  person.  His  followers 
have  remade  the  very  human  figure,  touching  up  the 
high  lights,  smoothing  out  defects  in  the  shadows, 
enveloping  all  in  a  mystic  haze.  Louis  XIV  might  have 
been  no  hero  to  his  valet,  but  the  French  people  during 
more  than  two  thirds  of  his  long  reign  made  him  into 
a  god  and  worshiped  him.  They  distorted  .him,  it  is 
true,  just  as  other  people  have  distorted  Lincoln  and 
Garibaldi  and  Bismarck,  but  it  was  a  labor  of  love, 
and  they  humbled  themselves  before  that  which  they 
had  made. 

climber  has  a  proper  pride  in  his  achievement  and  flaunts  it  in  the  face 
of  the  aristocracy  of  birth.  Pope  Urban  IV,  the  son  of  a  cobbler,  who 
himself  had  worked  at  the  trade,  chose  a  cobbler's  tools  as  his  symbol. 
Senator  Sawyer  of  Wisconsin,  who  made  a  fortune  in  sawmilling,  put 
on  his  carriage,  the  Latin  vidi,  which,  being  translated,  signifies,  'I 
saw  I'"    Cf.  his  Soc.  Psy.,  169-173. 


MEN   REAL  AND   IDEAL  127 

Because  of  this  idealizing  tendency,  a  leader's  fame 
often  far  transcends  his  real  merit.  The  first  sight  of 
a  man  of  whom  one  has  heard  much  —  a  president,  rail- 
road builder,  banker,  or  financier  —  is  thus  apt  to  be 
disappointing.  Under  calm  scrutiny  the  mystic  halo 
fades.  "  He  looked  to  me,"  Webster  said  of  Jefferson, 
whom  he  met  at  Monticello,  "  very  different  from  any 
ideal  I  had  formed  of  him." 

The  rift  between  fact  and  fancy  widens  with  death. 
Biographers  discover  in  the  great  man's  youth  instances 
of  prophetic  precocity.  Criticisms  fade  and  eulogies 
are  accentuated  until  a  wide  discrepancy  exists  between 
current  popular  beliefs  and  earlier  contemporary  ac- 
counts. A  mythical  personage  is  shaped  up,  often  from 
materials  sadly  deficient  in  hero  stuff.^  Admirers  draw 
from  this,  their  creation,  that  vague  stimulus  so  con- 
genial to  the  constructive  imagination.  Reinterpreting 
their  hero  from  age  to  age,  they  make  of  him  a  vast 
radiating  center,  a  most  precious  and  undying  part  of 
the  social  heritage.  Such  is  Mohammed,  or  Napoleon, 
or  Caesar,  or  Lincoln,  or  any  of  those  countless  souls  to 
whom  the  idealizing  tendency  has  vouchsafed  immor- 
tality. 

IMITATION  IN  MANAGEMENT 

One  is  inclined  to  pride  himself  upon  independence,  to 
magnify  his  individuality  or  originality;   consequently, 

1  Says  Mommsen  of  Cato's  death:  "It  is  an  affecting  fact,  that  on 
that  world-stage  on  which  so  many  great  and  wise  men  had  moved  and 
acted,  the  fool  was  destined  to  give  the  epilogue.  He  too  died  not  in 
vain  .  .  .  republican  opposition  borrowed  from  Cato  its  whole  attitude, 
—  stately,  transcendental  in  its  rhetoric,  pretentiously  rigid,  hopeless, 
and  faithful  to  death ;  and  accordingly  it  began  even  immediately  after 
his  death  to  revere  as  a  saint  the  man  who  in  his  lifetime  was  not  in- 
frequently its  laughing  stock  and  its  scandal."  History  of  Rome,  IV, 
536-537. 


128  IMITATION 

the  wholesale  influence  of  imitation  is  minimized.  "  As 
a  matter  of  fact,"  says  James/  ''  we  find  ourselves  be- 
lieving, we  hardly  know  how  or  why.  Mr.  Balfour  gives 
the  name  of  *  authority  '  to  all  those  influences,  born 
of  the  intellectual  climate,  that  make  hypothesis  pos- 
sible or  impossible  for  us,  alive  or  dead.  Here,  in  this 
room,  we  all  of  us  believe  in  molecules  and  the  conser- 
vation of  energy,  in  democracy  and  necessary  progress, 
in  Protestant  Christianity  and  the  duty  of  fighting  for 
*  the  doctrine  of  the  immortal  Monroe,'  all  for  no  rea- 
son worthy  of  the  name.  We  see  into  these  matters 
with  no  more  inner  clearness,  and  probably  with  much 
less,  than  any  disbeliever  in  them  might  possess.  His 
unconventionality  would  probably  have  some  grounds 
to  show  for  its  conclusions ;  but  for  us,  not  insight,  but 
the  prestige  of  the  opinions,  is  what  makes  the  spark 
shoot  from  them  and  light  up  our  sleeping  magazines 
of  faith.  Our  reason  is  quite  satisfied,  in  nine  hundred 
and  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  every  thousand  of  us,  if 
it  can  find  a  few  arguments  that  will  do  to  recite  in  case 
our  credulity  is  criticized  by  some  one  else.  Our  faith 
is  faith  in  some  one  else's  faith,  and  in  the  greatest 
matters  this  is  most  the  case." 

Most  of  our  mental  furniture  is  borrowed.  The 
beliefs  thus  held  may  easily  be  disproved  by  analysis, 
nevertheless  they  shape  our  daily  endeavor.  Among 
such  beliefs  may  be  mentioned :  "  manual  labor  is 
degrading ;"  "  pecuniary  success  is  the  only  success ;  " 
"  civic  worth  is  measured  by  pecuniary  success ; " 
"  conservatism  is  good  form  whereas  radicalism  is 
vulgar;  "  and  that  "  things  are  beautiful  in  proportion 
as  they  are  costly."  ^  The  poor  in  general  ape  the 
rich,  none  being  more  ready  to  apply  the  commercial- 

1  Will  to  Believe,  9. 

*  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  111-116. 


THE  POWER  OF  EXAMPLE  129 

class  standard  of  success  than  those  who  have  the 
least.^ 

Whatever  is  of  such  social  import  must  have  a  value 
in  management.  Whether  it  manifests  itself  merely 
as  an  impulse,  enlists  volition,  or,  looking  at  its  influence 
from  a  somewhat  different  angle,  shapes  the  reigning 
social  values,  imitation  possesses  a  power  not  to  be 
ignored.  By  what  means  may  this  power  be  reahzed 
in  practice? 

The  followers  of  great  captains  have  felt  the  enthu- 
siasm of  example.  Exclaimed  Garibaldi,  "  Let  him 
who  loves  his  country  in  his  heart  and  not  with  his  lips 
only, follow  we/  "  Zeno  aroused  his  troops  by  declar- 
ing he  personally  would  lead  them,  but  when  through 
fear  he  dared  not  do  so,  his  Empire  of  the  East  was  lost. 
Royal  titles,  long  hair,  and  hanging  beard  could  not 
keep  a  Merovingian  on  the  throne  that  had  known 
Clovis  and  was  to  see  Charlemagne.  Henry  III  of 
France  sought  to  render  himself  imposing  through 
stately  ceremonials.  Chamberlains,  chief  physician, 
cupbearer,  officers  of  state,  cardinals,  and  princes 
crowded  the  royal  bedroom  when  His  Majesty  for  break- 
fast sipped  a  cup  of  tea.     Crowds  of  courtiers  fawned 

1  This  distortion  of  values  is  well  shown  by  Miss  Addams :  "During 
one  of  the  campaigns  a  clever  cartoonist  drew  a  poster  representing  the 
successful  alderman  in  portraiture  drinking  champagne  at  a  table  loaded 
with  pretentious  dishes  and  surrounded  by  other  revelers.  In  contra- 
distinction was  his  opponent,  a  bricklayer,  who  sat  upon  a  half-finished 
wall,  eating  a  meager  dinner  from  a  workingman's  dinner-pail,  and  the 
passer-by  was  asked  which  type  of  representative  he  preferred,  the  pre- 
sumption being  that  at  least  in  the  workingmen's  district  the  brick- 
layer would  come  out  ahead.  To  the  chagrin  of  the  reformers,  however, 
it  was  gradually  discovered  that,  in  the  popular  mind,  a  man  who  laid 
bricks  and  wore  overalls  was  not  nearly  so  desirable  for  an  alderman  as 
the  man  who  drank  champagne  and  wore  a  diamond  in  his  shirt  front. 
The  district  wished  its  representative  *to  stand  up  with  the  best  of 
them,'  and  certainly  some  of  the  constituents  would  have  been  ashamed 
to  have  been  represented  by  a  bricklayer."  Democracy  and  Social 
Ethics,  257-258. 


I30  IMITATION 

upon  him  all  day  long,  and  bands  of  singers  followed 
him  to  his  bed.  But  Frenchmen  despised  his  weak 
personality,  and  the  power  based  on  ceremonials  crumpled 
under  Navarre's  challenge  at  Ivry :  "  Comrades,  here  is 
your  king.  Should  your  standard  fall,  rally  round  my 
white  plume;  you  will  find  it  on  the  path  of  victory 
and  honor !  " 

Such  men  are  a  radiating  center  for  imitation.  Alex- 
ander covered  with  wounds,  Caesar  drawing  his  sword 
and  using  it  like  the  rest,  Cortes  sparing  himself  no 
danger  while  leading  his  little  band  in  Mexico,  Charles 
XII  of  Sweden  again  and  again  recklessly  exposing 
himself  to  death  and  throughout  his  last  campaign 
faring  worse  than  the  meanest  of  his  soldiers,  William 
the  Conqueror  after  the  battle  of  Hastings  calmly 
divesting  himself  of  shield  and  helmet  battered  by  many 
blows,  these  are  the  captains  who  have  captured  the 
hearts  of  followers.  Yet  their  policy,  in  spirit  at  least, 
is  possible  to  present-day  executives.  Let  even  the 
most  systematic  of  these  at  times  shake  off  routine 
bonds,  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  subordinates, 
and  be  baptized  anew  on  the  firing  line. 

Imitation,  moreover,  as  personality,  can  be  increased 
in  its  scope  through  organization.  Apprentices  are 
given  efficient  workmen  as  a  model  for  copy.  Employees 
noted  for  industry  are  placed  in  conspicuous  positions 
where  the  sight  of  their  activity  may  tone  up  the  whole 
force.  The  men  selected  for  promotion  must  qualify 
as  examples.  The  incompetent  clerk,  the  mistake  in 
shipping  address,  the  tactless  treatment  of  an  important 
customer,  such  incidents  are  not  permitted  to  demoralize 
the  force  by  receiving  undue  emphasis.  Evil  can  be 
imitated  as  well  as  good.  But  by  deftly  removing  error 
from  the  foreground,  the  bulletin  pictures  the  winner  of 
"  our  last  sales  contest,"  the  promotion  write-up  indicates 


OUTER  AND  INNER  IMITATION  131 

that  "  our  organization  "  does  seek  out  merit  for  re- 
ward, the  sales  letter  mentions  that  "  our  new  car  " 
has  just  been  purchased  by  the  governor.  In  short,  the 
limelight  plays  upon  accomplishments,  thus  endowing 
them  with  prestige  that  they  may  increase  many  fold. 
From  officers  nearest  him  to  distant  employee  and  cus- 
tomer, all  become  banded  together  by  that  imitation 
prestige  whose  source  is  the  executive  himself. 

Three  factors  may  now  be  considered  which  somewhat 
condition  the  use  of  imitation  in  management : 

(i)  The  Content  is  First  Imitated,  Later  the  Form}  — 
The  newly  landed  immigrant  is  an  odd  figure,  a  bit  of 
the  old  world  in  the  new ;  but  he  does  not  long  remain 
so.  His  foreign-style  clothing  is  discarded  after  a  time 
for  garments  of  American  cut ;  his  language,  manners, 
diet,  amusements,  are  reshaped,  and  he  becomes  as  one 
of  us.  It  seems  as  if,  first  copying  us  in  these  externals, 
in  the  end  he  becomes  an  American  in  spirit.  Quite 
the  contrary,  in  fact,  occurs.  He  was  conquered  first 
of  all  by  Americanism;  copying  its  externals  has  been 
simply  carrying  out  more  completely  the  inward  imi- 
tation felt  even  before  migrating.  Outer  conformity 
is  merely  evidence  of  the  inner  change  which  preceded  it. 

Similarly  the  executive  who  masters  subordinates 
first  of  all  masters  them  in  spirit.  This  thoroughly 
done,  his  walk,  peculiar  phrases,  dress,  perhaps  even  his 
energy  and  efficiency,  spread  throughout  the  organiza- 
tion. That  is,  when  the  subordinate  is  free  to  follow 
his  inclination,  he  first  imitates  the  spirit  and  later  on 
the  letter. 

When,  however,  imitation  is  made  compulsory,  the 
reverse  is  true.  The  inferior  adopts  the  externals  of 
the  copy  forced  upon  him,  but  the  inner  spirit  is  all  his 
own.    In  religious  conquests,  for  instance,  the  conquered 

*  Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  199-204. 


132  IMITATION 

perform  the  rites  of  the  new  religion,  but  the  faith  is 
that  of  their  fathers. 

In  practice  these  principles  would  work  out  somewhat 
as  follows :  When  the  mere  form  suffices,  imitation  may 
be  forced.  The  raw  recruits  are  ruthlessly  drilled  into 
line.  The  apprentice  is  ordered  to  copy  the  product 
of  the  journeyman  and  the  movements  through  which 
it  was  produced.  In  short,  when  the  standard  practice 
is  clearly  established,  its  imitation  can  be  enforced. 
Externals  suffice  when  routine  rules. 

But  throughout  vast  segments  of  collective  endeavor 
no  standard  practice  has  yet  been  reached.  Printed 
instructions  may  tell  the  assembly-room  workman 
exactly  how  many  turns  to  give  bolt  A ;  they  can  never 
be  all-embracing  for  the  salesman  nor  lawyer  nor  engi- 
neer nor  for  any  of  those  millions  whose  effort  must 
conquer  the  unexpected  and  whose  success  is  linked  up 
with  initiative.  Esprit  de  corps  then  rises  in  value.  Sub- 
ordinates adopt  the  central  policy  or  spirit  of  the  house, 
but  in  each  concrete  situation  they  employ  whatever 
means  will  best  realize  this  policy  in  practice.  When 
the  content  thus  alone  suffices,  imitation  becomes  free^ 
resting  on  its  prestige  value. 

(2)  The  Superior  is  not  Imitated  with  Discrimination. 
—  "  When  there  is  a  real  personal  superiority,"  says 
Cooley,^  "  ascendancy  is  seldom  confined  to  the  traits 
in  which  this  is  manifested,  but,  once  established  in 
regard  to  these  traits,  it  tends  to  envelop  the  leader  as 
a  whole,  and  to  produce  allegiance  to  him  as  a  concrete 
person.  This  comes,  of  course,  from  the  difficulty  of 
breaking  up  and  sifting  that  which  presents  itself  to 
the  senses,  and  through  them  to  the  mind,  as  a  single 
living  whole.  And  as  the  faults  and  weaknesses  of  a 
great  man  are  commonly  much  easier  to  imitate  than 

*  Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  309-310. 


EFFECTIVENESS  IN  IMITATION  133 

his  excellences,  it  often  happens,  as  in  the  case  of  Michel- 
angelo, that  the  former  are  much  more  conspicuous  in 
his  followers  than  the  latter." 

It  requires  a  high  degree  of  skill  so  to  maneuver 
oneself  and  all  other  heads  in  an  organization  that  de- 
sired qualities  are  strikingly  set  forth  for  imitation  and 
all  others  rendered  ineffectual  through  suppression. 
Education  is  one  solution,  since  on  the  part  of  subordi- 
nates this  following  the  good  and  rejecting  the  unfit 
involves  rational  imitation. 

(3)  Different  Bodily  and  Mental  Attitudes  vary  in 
Degree  of  Transmissihility}  —  Motor  impulses  are  ex- 
tremely infectious.  When  bodies  of  men  keep  time  to 
music,  even  non-marchers  find  themselves  in  step. 
Yawning  is  contagious,  gestures  and  postures  follow  the 
smart-set  model,  dancing  as  a  fad  spreads  from  city  to 
city.  In  short,  with  all  things  not  the  objects  of  con- 
scious attention  men  are  highly  imitative. 

Emotions  spread  readily  among  men.  In  boom  towns 
all  are  infected  with  hope,  and  in  bank  panics  all  with 
fear.  Hate,  enthusiasm,  religious  fervor,  fanaticism, 
each  eludes  all  logical  tests  and  skips  nimbly  from  mind 
to  mind.  Slowest  of  all  is  the  imitation  of  ideas,  es- 
pecially of  the  coldly  scientific  sort.  These  appeal  to 
intellect  and  involve  deliberate  weighing,  which  con- 
sumes time;  and  frequent  rejection,  which  in  so  far 
as  this  one  mind  is  concerned  bars  their  spread.  The 
careful  scientist,  far  less  quickly  than  the  fervent  poet, 
secures  a  national  hearing. 

How  the  executive  shall  use  his  imitation  policy  thus 
depends  somewhat  upon  what  is  to  be  transmitted,  and 
the  time  available.  The  old-time  revivalist,  the  trade- 
union  agitator,  the  promoter  of  boom  towns,  the  director 

*Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  124-130  passim.  See  also  121-145;  and  Tarde, 
Laws  of  Imitation,  194. 


134  IMITATION 

of  all  forlorn  enterprises  where  men  must  act  by  faith 
not  fact,  successfully  appeal  to  emotional  imitation.  A 
sales  convention,  disorderly  in  its  proceedings,  may  so 
seethe  with  enthusiasm  for  "  The  House"  that  it  is  no 
place  for  the  interchange  of  ideas,  and  these  latter  are 
then  offered  for  imitation  through  house  organ  or  letter. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Should  the  emperor  go  to  the  front  when  technically  the 
war  can  be  directed  better  from  the  distant  capitol? 

2.  How  prevent  a  man  of  marked  capacity  but  dissolute  habits 
from  demoralizing  the  organization? 

3.  Do  our  contemporary  leaders  exert  more  or  less  influence 
than  those  dead? 

4.  How  was  it  that  Henry  IV  of  France  disguised  as  a  wood- 
cutter was  rebuffed  by  the  lady  who  smiled  upon  him  as  king? 
Was  it  true  love? 

5.  Do  we  accept  the  reigning  values  of  our  own  class  or  of  the 
class  to  which  we  aspire? 

6.  What  purpose  in  the  promoter's  offer  of  special  rates,  even 
gifts  of  stocks,  to  influential  persons?  Of  the  high  salaries  being 
tendered  "dummy"  directors? 

READINGS 

Ross,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  VII-XI. 
Tarde,  The  Laws  of  Imitation^  Ch.  VI. 


CHAPTER  XII 

Suggestion 

"Man  is  a  suggestible  animal,  par  excellence,  and  the  laws  of 
hypnosis  work  on  a  great  scale  in  society."        —  Boris  Sidis. 

The  skilled  hypnotist  seems  to  possess  a  magic, 
uncanny  power,  and  one  does  not  readily  cease  to 
wonder  at  his  control.  Yet  the  hypnotist,  with  all  his 
wands  and  mysterious  passes,  exhibits  merely  the  exag- 
gerated forms  of  a  phenomenon  going  on  about  us 
continually,  but  which,  because  of  its  prevalence  and 
unobtrusive  action,  draws  no  particular  attention,  in 
fact  is  commonly  overlooked.  Seemingly  it  may  make 
very  little  difference  whether  clerks  ask,  "  Shall  we  send 
the  package?  "  or,  "  Shall  we  send  the  package  or  will 
you  take  it  with  you?''  but  a  big  department  store 
found  that  merely  adding  the  latter  phrase  cut  their 
delivery  costs  thousands  of  dollars.  This  firm  merely 
capitalized  suggestion  for  its  own  benefit;  and  others 
may  go  and  do  likewise. 

The  politicians,  in  fact,  have  been  doing  this  for  a 
long,  long  time.  At  opportune  times  they  spread 
broadcast  the  slogan,  "  Pass  Prosperity  Around,''  which 
being  interpreted  means  "  Elect  me !  "  Or,  as  a  recent 
presidential  candidate  assured  the  voters  of  Illinois, 
"  whenever  dangers  threaten  our  nation  a  man  is  always 
raised  up  able  to  solve  them,"  quite  as  deft,  and  in  this 
case  quite  as  workable  a  suggestion  as  ever  emanated 
from  conjurer's  wand.     In  the  speeches  of  Henry  IV  of 

135 


136  SUGGESTION 

France  we  find  little  argument  but  skillful  flattery, 
much  praise  of  himself  and  energetic  exhortations  to 
others,  vague  but  often-repeated  promises  of  future 
benefits  —  and  such  Henries  have  multiplied  in  our 
day. 

Suggestion  should  not  be  disdained  because  its  use 
has  victimized  the  gullible,  for  it  serves  honest  executive 
as  well  as  charlatan.  We  are  not  at  present  concerned 
with  the  question,  whether  these  various  means  of 
motivation  are  put  to  good  use  or  evil,  but  solely  with 
their  particular  effectiveness  in  controlling  men.  Now 
every  normal  mind  is  suggestible;  that  is,  it  tends  to 
accept  with  more  or  less  conviction  propositions  sub- 
mitted to  it  for  which  logically  adequate  grounds  are 
lacking.^  Moreover,  consciousness  being  in  its  very 
nature  motor,  the  immediate  effect  of  feeling  is  move- 
ment. Logical  grounds  or  none,  the  mind  acts  upon 
its  convictions ;  "  the  abrupt  entrance  from  without 
into  consciousness  of  an  idea  or  image  which  becomes 
a  part  of  the  stream  of  thought  and  tends  to  produce 
the  muscular  and  volitional  effects  which  ordinarily 
follow  upon  its  presence,"  ^  viewed  in  its  effects  upon 
us  as  social  beings,  is  a  dominant  motivating  force. 
"  The  Thirty-second  Demibrigade,"  said  Napoleon, 
"  would  have  died  to  a  man  for  me  because  after  Lonato 
I  wrote,  *  The  Thirty-second  was  there  and  I  was  at 
ease.'  " 

SUGGESTION  POWER 

Suggestions  produce  results,  and  hence  are  true  forces. 
Their  power  of  impact  is  conditioned  by  the  following 
factors : 

*  This  is  the  criterion  set  by  McDougall.     Ci.  Soc.  Psy.,  97. 
'The  definition  of  suggestion  offered  by  Baldwin.    Handbook  of 
Psychology,  II,  297. 


SUGGESTION  PRESTIGE  137 

I.  Prestige  of  the  Suggestor.—li  the  suggestor  is  an 
inferior,  his  proposition  probably  will  be  ignored,  if 
not  disdained.  The  idea  may  fare  little  better  if  it 
comes  from  an  equal.  But  let  it  emanate  from  a  recog- 
nized superior,  a  priest,  a  teacher,  a  general  manager,  an 
honored  statesman;  the  critical  faculties  are  lulled  by 
his  prestige  and  the  suggestion  produces  conviction. 

The  impact  of  suggestion  is  rendered  more  powerful 
on  the  sugges tor's  part  by  his  faith  in  self}  Las  Casas 
once  said  to  Napoleon :  "  Sire,  at  Potsdam,  had  I  been 
you,  I  would  have  taken  the  sword  of  Frederick  the  Great 
and  I  would  have  worn  it."  The  answer  of  the  master 
was :  "I  had  my  own."  Faith  in  self  serves  as  a  spark 
in  tinder,  kindling  in  others  by  suggestion  the  powers 
required  for  its  own  verification. 

Another  means,  and  one  closely  associated  with  faith, 
is  self-respect.  Subordinates'  respect  for  their  chief  is 
at  bottom  but  a  sympathetic  reflection  of  his  own  self- 
respect.  He  passes  current  with  them  at  the  value  he 
has  set  upon  himself.  By  thus  causing  others  to  share 
this  value,  the  man  of  strong  self-respect  increases  both 
his  positive  self-feeUng  and  his  adherent's  negative 
self-feeling,  thereby  expanding  his  own  suggestion 
power. 

Still  another  element  is  energy.  A  conflict  of  forces 
is  involved  when  two  persons  approach  each  other, 
and  in  a  group  this  is  commonly  multiplied  into  a  sharp 

^  "The  men  of  ardent  convictions  who  have  stirred  the  soul  of  crowds, 
the  Peter  the  Hermits,  the  Luthers,  the  Savonarolas,  the  men  of  the 
French  Revolution,  have  been  able  to  call  up  in  the  souls  of  their  fellows 
that  formidable  force  known  as  faith,  which  renders  a  man  the  absolute 
slave  of  his  dream.  ...  Of  all  the  forces  at  the  disposal  of  humanity, 
faith  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  tremendous,  and  the  gospel  rightly 
attributes  to  it  the  power  of  moving  mountains.  To  endow  a  man  with 
faith,  is  to  multiply  his  strength  tenfold.  The  great  events  of  history 
have  been  brought  about  by  obscure  believers,  who  had  little  beyond 
their  faith  in  their  favour."     Le  Bon,  The  Crowd,  135-136  passim. 


138  SUGGESTION 

contest.  Men  of  little  energy  are  unable  to  withstand 
the  mental  blows  rained  upon  them,  and  take  to  cover. 
Vigorous  natures,  to  the  contrary,  cast  off  the  sugges- 
tions impinging  upon  them.  They  hurl  forth  a  veritable 
swarm  of  ideas  and  images.  Instead  of  being  shaped, 
they  shape  others. 

Closely  related  to  energy  is  the  objective  temperament. 
It  implies  the  outflowing  nature,  the  freedom  from  self- 
examination,  morbid  analysis,  and  criticism.  As  was 
said  of  Napoleon,  "  Introspection  was  alien  to  his  being ; 
his  critical  powers,  if  turned  in  for  a  time  on  himself, 
quickly  moving  back  to  work  upon  men  and  affairs." 
The  introspective  temperament  necessarily  directs  the 
attention  toward  self,  admirable  enough,  perhaps,  for 
poets,  philosophers,  ethical  teachers,  and  other  students 
of  the  inner  world;  but  the  executive  would  possess 
an  outer  world.     Objectivity  is  his. 

All  these,  however,  are  elements  of  personality ;  and 
other  qualities  which  might  be  mentioned  could  be 
classified  either  under  that  head  or  as  aspects  of  imita- 
tion prestige.  A  more  extended  discussion  is  thus  un- 
necessary. We  may  conclude  by  saying  natural  and 
imitation  prestige  fits  a  man  to  exercise  a  vast  suggestion 
sway. 

2.  Suggestibility  of  Subjects. — The  fundamental  char- 
acteristic of  suggestibility  is  that  normal  inhibition  is 
broken  down  and  the  mind  of  the  subject  Hes  open, 
more  or  less  at  the  mercy  of  the  incoming  idea  or  image. 
Upon  what  factors  does  this  condition,  termed  sugges- 
tibility, depend? 

First  may  be  mentioned  credulity.  A  body  of  knowl- 
edge, well  organized,  critical,  may  be  lacking.  Witness 
the  belief  of  children  in  fairy  tales,  of  primitive  folk  in 
magic  incantations,  of  rural  dwellers  in  rain-making 
and  crop-insuring  devices.    Because  belief  is  natural 


SUGGESTIBILITY  139 

while  the  critical  faculties  must  be  developed  and 
trained,  suggestion  tends  to  run  riot  in  ignorant 
minds. 

A  second  element  is  found  in  temperament.  Every 
one  is  familiar  with  the  onward-looking,  optimistic 
temperament,  as  contrasted  with  the  critical,  self- 
centered  type.  A  person  of  this  latter  nature  is  liable 
to  be  hostile  toward  suggestions,  taking  pride  in  his 
own  conclusions  and  coolly  resisting  the  intrusion  of 
others.  The  sanguine  temperament,  because  its  cur- 
rents are  warm,  ardent,  and  outward  flowing,  is  a  more 
cordial  host. 

A  third  factor  i&  an  abnormal  mental  condition.  This 
abnormal  state  may  be  no  more  serious  than  absence 
of  mind.  "  An  absent-minded  professor  is  directed 
by  his  wife  after  dinner  to  go  upstairs  and  change  his 
clothes  preparatory  to  receiving  callers.  On  going  in 
search  of  him  after  the  callers  have  left,  she  finds  him 
asleep  in  bed.  Undressing  had  suggested  '  bed,'  and 
bed  had  suggested  '  sleep.'  "  ^ 

Fasting  heightens  suggestibility.  The  stable  mental- 
ity by  this  means  is  dethroned,  and  the  victim,  often  a 
religious  enthusiast,  is  enabled  to  hear  voices  and  see 
visions,  not  of  God,  but  merely  concoctions  of  his  hyper- 
sensitive consciousness.  There  is  much  of  sense  in 
three  meals  a  day. 

Fatigue,  similarly,  produces  an  abnormal  state  of 
mind  with  increased  suggestibility.  Wearied  brain 
cells  no  longer  are  alert,  critical;  the  bars  are  thrown 
down  and  all  ideas  are  of  equal  value  as  they  stream 
in  and  take  possession  of  consciousness.  Extravagant 
motor  consequences  at  any  time  are  liable  to  ensue. 

The  essence  of  abnormality  consists  in  a  dissociation 
of  consciousness,  the  separation  of  the  higher  control- 
5,  Soc.  Psy.,  18. 


I40  SUGGESTION 

ling  centers  from  the  rest  of  the  psychic  stream.^  This 
running  a  partition  through  consciousness  holds  the 
ordinary  criteria  of  belief  in  abeyance  and  the  sub- 
waking self  becoming  master,  suggestibility  is  height- 
ened. In  absence  of  mind  this  separation  usually  is 
slight,  in  hypnosis  it  verges  toward  the  absolute.  In 
general  it  may  be  said,  degrees  of  suggestibility  corre- 
spond to  degrees  of  dissociation. 

5.  Duration.  —  As  constant  dripping  wears  away  the 
hardest  stone,  so  continued  hammering  by  suggestion 
reshapes  consciousness.  "  It  is  not  by  advancing  a 
political  truth  once,  or  twice,  or  even  ten  times,"  O'Con- 
nell  once  said,  "  that  the  public  will  take  it  up  and  finally 
adopt  it.  Incessant  repetition  is  required  to  impress 
political  truths  upon  the  public  mind.  Men,  by  always 
hearing  the  same  things,  insensibly  associate  them  with 
received  truisms.  They  find  the  facts  at  last  quietly 
reposing  in  a  corner  of  their  minds,  and  no  more  think 
of  doubting  them  than  if  they  formed  part  of  their 
religious  belief."  ^ 

It  required  four  years  of  persistent  endeavor  before 
John  Quincy  Adams  attained  a  position  of  importance 
in  the  senate.  Moody  from  the  provinces  bombarded 
London  with  revival  suggestion  constantly  for  two  years 
before  he  swept  down  upon  the  city  as  a  conquering 
general.  Hiram  Johnson  traveled  over  California  for 
nearly  seven  months  hammering  away  at   one   issue, 

1  "In  the  normal  state  the  waking,  controlling  consciousness  is  always 
on  its  guard,  and  when  enticed,  leaves  its  ground  only  a  single  step,  and 
that  only  for  but  a  moment.  In  normal  suggestibility  the  psychical  scar 
is  faint ;  the  lesion  affected  in  the  body  of  consciousness  is  superficial, 
transitory,  fleeting.  In  abnormal  suggestibility,  on  the  contrary,  the 
slit  is  deep  and  lasting  —  it  is  a  severe  gash.  In  both  cases,  however, 
we  have  a  removal,  a  dissociation  of  the  waking  from  the  subwaking, 
reflex  consciousness  and  suggestion  being  affected  only  through  the 
latter."    Sidis,  Psychology  of  Suggestion,  89. 

*  Dunlap,  op.  cit.,  46. 


THE  POWER  OF  SUGGESTION  141 

closing  nearly  every  speech  by  saying :  "  Remember  this, 
my  friends :  I  am  going  to  be  the  next  Governor  of  Cali- 
fornia ;  and  when  I  am,  I  am  going  to  kick  out  of  this 
government  William  F.  Herrin  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad.  —  Good-night." 

In  the  mental  life  as  in  nature  there  is  a  season  for 
seed  sowing  and  a  season  for  harvesting.^  The  reitera- 
tion of  suggestions  apparently  may  be  harmless  amuse- 
ment. But  in  the  end  the  orator  has  woven  his  spell, 
the  trade-marked  article  is  sought,  the  missionary  has 
remade  his  converts,  the  unmigrant  is  fused  in  the 
American  melting  pot.  The  impact  of  suggestion  after 
suggestion  has  broken  down  inhibition,  and  the  idea  or 
image  is  firmly  planted  in  the  mind. 

<^.  Volume.  —  A  suggestion  has  enormous  penetrating 
power  when  from  all  sides  it  beats  upon  consciousness. 
"  Scarcely  anyone,"  says  Bagehot,^  "  can  help  yielding 
to  the  current  infatuations  of  his  sect  or  party.  For 
a  short  time  —  say  some  fortnight  —  he  is  resolute ; 
he  argues  and  objects;  but,  day  by  day,  the  poison 
thrives,  and  reason  wavers.  What  he  hears  from  his 
friends,  what  he  reads  in  the  party  organ,  produces  its 
effect.  The  plain,  palpable  conclusion,  which  every 
one  around  him  believes,  has  an  influence  yet  greater 
and  more  subtle;  that  conclusion  seems  so  solid  and 
unmistakable ;  his  own  good  arguments  get  daily  more 
and  more  like  a  dream.     Soon  the  gravest  sage  shares  the 

1  The  old-time  revivalist  holding  camp  meetings  shrewdly  recognized 
this  fact.  "We  gave  invitation  to  all  the  Presbyterian  ministers  to  unite 
with  us  at  our  quarterly  meetings,"  wrote  one  of  these;  "but  they  gen- 
erally pleaded  as  an  excuse  that  they  had  appointments  to  fill,  and  Fri- 
day, Saturday,  and  Sunday  would  pass  off  without  any  aid  from  them ; 
but  on  Monday  we  generally  saw  some  of  their  ministers  in  the  congre- 
gation, but  having  our  plans  filled  up  for  that  day  we  consequently  paid 
no  attention  to  them ;  for  we  were  fully  convinced  that  they  only  wanted 
the  Methodists  to  shake  the  hush,  and  they  would  catch  the  birds. ^' 

2  Physics  and  Politics,  93-94. 


X43  SUGGESTION 

folly  of  the  party  with  which  he  acts,  and  the  sect  with 
which  he  worships."  Whoever  lives  in  an  atmosphere 
of  infectious  belief  by  what  chance  will  not  inhale  it  ? 

Shrewd  leaders  have  not  failed  to  note  the  power  of 
mass  suggestion,  and  in  the  beginning  have  carefully 
nursed  their  psychic  product  until  it  acquires  strength 
to  sweep  the  opposition.  The  "  straw  vote ''  result  is 
widely  circulated.  Early  successes  at  the  polls  are 
proclaimed  "  test  votes,''  with  headlines  screaming 
"  First  blood  for  Blank !  "  At  opportune  times  tons 
of  campaign  thunder  are  dumped  into  the  mail  racks.^ 
Hordes  of  hired  spellbinders  are  turned  loose,  their 
leathern  lungs  serving  to  increase  the  psychic  reso- 
nance. The  candidate  issues  "  An  Address  to  the 
American  People.''  Suggestion  acquires  momentum. 
The  psychological  effect  of  seeing  state  after  state  go 
for  a  certain  candidate  usually  is  that  more  states  do 
likewise.  Citizens  are  assured  "  everybody's  doing 
it."  They  imbibe  the  perfervid  atmosphere  —  and  vote 
while  in  that  condition.  The  election  returns  indicate 
a  glorious  victory  for  the  plain  people. 

Such  are  foundations  upon  which  suggestion  power 
rests.  Prestige,  suggestibility,  duration,  volume,  these 
four,  if  left  to  run  riot,  are  able  to  dethrone  the  strongest 
character^;   in  lawless  mob,  financial  panic,  religious 

*  It  is  said  upon  the  authority  of  an  official  competent  to  state  the 
facts  that  during  the  presidential  campaign  of  191 2  the  government 
printing  office  turned  out  50,000,000  documents.  Stacked  up  in  a  single 
pile  these  would  reach  more  than  thirty  miles  into  the  sky,  and  if  the 
separate  pages  were  placed  end  to  end,  they  would  girdle  the  earth  five 
times,  enough  being  left  over  to  reach  from  Washington  to  the  Philip- 
pines !  We  may  well  sympathize  with  the  New  York  Sun's  announce- 
ment: "The  Political  Debating  Society  and  Anti-Business  Association 
at  Washington  adjourned  yesterday." 

*  A  reporter  was  thus  influenced  by  Francis  Schlatter,  the  "Messiah" 
of  1895 :  "As  I  approached  him  I  became  possessed  of  a  certain  super- 


MAKING  USE  OF  SUGGESTION  143 

craze,  and  kindred  delusions,  they  have  checkered  his- 
tory with  the  deepest  tragedies  of  the  psychic  life.  But 
they  have  as  well  melted  crude  natures  together,  stiffened 
worthless  men  into  martyr  mold,,  imbued  them  with  that 
fervor  seen  in  patriotic  defense  or  holy  war.  Whether 
its  results  be  good  or  ill  does  not  here  concern  us  so  much 
as  this  fact,  that  suggestion  has  power  within  groups  of 
men. 

SUGGESTION  IN  PRACTICE 

When  suggestion  is  to  be  employed,  there  are  several 
methods  which,  if  taken  as  guides,  will  considerably 
increase  its  effectiveness.  These  may  now  be  con- 
sidered. 

^'  Suggestion  should  vary  in  Directness  according  to  the 
Suggestibility  of  the  Subject.  —  In  order  that  suggestion 
may  accomplish  its  ends,  it  is  necessary  that  there  be 
a  cleft  in  consciousness ;  that  is,  the  higher  controlling 
phase  of  mind  must  be  separated  from  the  lower  brain 
centers.  In  abnormal  suggestibility,  this  cleft  is  deep, 
a  gash  so  serious  that  the  subwaking  self  lies  unprotected 
before  the  incoming  idea  or  image.  Direct  suggestion 
may  then  be  employed.  But  under  normal  condition, 
the  cleft  is  slight,  easily  closed ;   consciousness  must  be 

natural  fear,  which  it  was  difl&cult  to  analyze.  My  faith  in  the  man 
grew  in  spite  of  my  reason.  As  he  released  my  hands  my  soul  acknowl- 
edged some  power  in  this  man  that  my  mind  and  my  brain  seemed  to 
fight  against.  When  he  unclasped  my  hands  I  felt  as  though  I  could 
kneel  at  his  feet  and  call  him  master."     Sidis,  Psy.  of  Sug,,  302-303. 

The  pioneer  preachers  during  the  widespread  revivals  occurring  about 
a  century  ago  joyfully,  though  without  understanding,  related  instances 
of  how  those  coming  to  break  up  the  meetings  were  themselves  humbled 
and  converted,  "struck  down  by  the  hand  of  God."  Peter  Cartwright 
tells  of  a  bully  who  had  stealthily  approached  the  altar  from  the  rear, 
with  a  number  of  frogs  strung  on  a  piece  of  hickory  bark,  his  intention 
being  to  slip  them  over  the  revivalist's  head.  But  "the  spirit  which 
moved  over  the  multitude  struck  him  down  at  full  length;  he  roared 
like  a  bull  in  a  net,  and  cried  aloud  for  mercy."    Autobiography ,  380. 


144  SUGGESTION 

caught  napping  and  the  suggestion,  Hke  a  thin  blade, 
deftly  inserted.  Only  the  indirect  approach  will  here 
succeed. 

In  practice,  the  normal  mind  is  usually  approached 
under  cover  of  a  slantwise  suggestion,  this  gradually 
increasing  in  directness  as  the  suggestor  comes  more 
and  more  to  dominate  the  suggested.  In  twenty  minutes 
the  suave  salesman  who  opened  the  canvass  with  com- 
pliments soothing  as  a  day  in  June  is  transformed  into 
a  tyrant  who  bluntly  directs  the  prospect  to  "  sign  right 
here.'*  The  street-comer  agitator  first  hammers  home 
the  claim,  "  Labor  is  the  only  source  of  wealth  " ;  after- 
wards he  declares,  "  You're  big  fools  to  let  the  capitalists 
keep  on  exploiting  you  " ;  and  only  later  on  he  says, 
"  Each  throw  in  a  dollar  to  help  us  fight  your  cause." 
We  may  conclude  that  the  normal  mind  is  influenced 
best  by  slantwise  suggestion,  but  that  heightened  sugges- 
tibility permits  entrance  to  more  and  more  direct  sug- 
gestions, in  h^^pnosis  even  direct  appeal  succeeding  from 
the  first.  This  general  truth  is  capable  of  fruitful 
application. 

2.  Suggestion  Valites  vary  according  to  Degree  of  Posi- 
tiveness.  —  The  suggestor  works  as  an  artist,  a  stroke 
here,  a  stroke  there,  but  every  stroke  one  that  counts, 
every  move  directed  toward  the  picture  desired.  The 
leading  lawyer  of  Iowa,  it  is  said,  will  take  nothing  but  a 
strong  case.  His  record  constitutes  positiveness.  Pat- 
rick Henry  had  wonderful  address  in  leading  off  the  minds 
of  his  hearers  from  unfavorable  points,  a  plan  usually 
followed  by  men  who  win  cases.  In  commercial  con- 
cerns, the  wrangling  employee  is  dismissed,  the  credit 
man  perfects  himself  in  extracting  money  painlessly; 
"  the  customer,"  says  Marshall  Field,  "  is  always 
right."  Industry  sees  the  rise  of  the  "  PubUcity  Engi- 
neer," a  trouble  mender,  a  harmonizer,  a  creator  of  good 


KEEPING  SUGGESTION  POSITIVE  145 

will  who  keeps  his  corporation  favorably  before  con- 
sumers.    Suggestion  is  kept  positive. 

Another  means  is  to  acknowledge  no  defeat.  Sam 
Houston  maintained  his  personal  dignity  under  every 
circumstance,  and  after  his  deposition  as  governor  he 
walked  the  streets  of  Austin  as  if  he  had  been  victor  in 
the  contest.  During  the  greatest  reverses  of  his  career, 
it  is  said  of  Daniel  O'Connell  that  "  his  language  in 
public  was  as  hopeful  as  ever.  His  very  presence  in- 
spired confidence."  Such  suggestions  go  far  to  neutral- 
ize defeat;  its  power  is  lessened  when  treated  as  if  it 
were  not. 

This  indicates  a  point  of  view  concerning  the  treat- 
ment of  criticisms.  A  reply,  exhaustive  and  reiterated, 
especially  in  cases  where  it  cannot  be  made  crushingly 
convincing,  frequently  defeats  its  own  ends  by  suggest- 
ing that  the  criticism  itself  is  well  founded  and  a  body 
blow.  Clay,  for  instance,  merely  weakened  himself  by 
his  many  replies  to  Kremer^s  accusation  of  a  "  deal  " 
between  himself  and  Adams,  the  famous  "  coalition  of 
Blifil  and  Black  George,  —  the  combination,  unheard 
of  till  then,  of  the  Puritan  with  the  blackleg."  Much 
more  effectively  did  Webster,  after  a  two-hour  attack  had 
been  made  upon  him  in  the  senate,  rise  with  great  delib- 
eration and  dignity,  and  after  a  telling  silence  say,  **  Mr. 
President,  if  the  Senator  who  has  just  taken  his  seat  is 
not  too  much  fatigued,  I  move  that  the  senate  do  now  go 
into  an  executive  session." 

Expectancy  also  makes  for  positiveness  in  suggestion. 
Consider  the  effect  upon  the  fleet  when  just  before 
Trafalgar  Lord  Nelson  signaled  from  the  flagship, 
"  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty."  Re- 
formers, divines,  philanthropists,  leaders  of  all  causes 
which  live  by  faith  alone,  have  invariably  been  great 
expecters.     They  have  first  convinced  themselves  that 


146  SUGGESTION 

these  expectations  would  be  realized.  And  this  faith, 
by  stimulating  the  onward-moving  impulse  in  followers, 
insures  its  realization. 

By  keeping  suggestion  positive,  the  field  of  conscious- 
ness is  more  or  less  limited ;  the  attention  is  kept  from 
irrelevant  matters ;  there  is  monotony  and  inhibition.^ 
A  suggestion  made  under  such  conditions  not  only  has 
power,  but  this  power,  in  addition,  is  exerted  in  the  direc- 
tion which  the  suggestor  would  have. 

J.  The  Infectiousness  of  Suggestion  renders  Cumulative 
Results  Possible.  —  Suggestion  is  a  mass  phenomenon ; 
its  sweep  varies  with  compactness.  The  Kentucky 
revivaUsts  of  a  century  ago,  when  they  had  drawn  people 
from  miles  around  into  one  dense  throng  at  the  camp 
meeting,  transformed  even  idle  onlookers  and  scoffers 
into  shouting  converts.  The  agitator,  the  reformer, 
the  lodge  organizer,  the  orator,  the  sales  manager,  alike 
beUeve  in  mass  influence ;  and  the  ticket  seller  for  the 
fake  show  says,  "  Move  up  close,  boys."  When  men 
pack  together,  voluntary  movements  are  restricted,  in- 
dividuality wilts.  Let  attention  be  fixed  by  some  stir- 
ring phrase,  —  "Liberty,"  "Democracy,"  "Votes  for 
women,"  "54^40'  or  Fight,"  —  by  some  calamity  or 
national  insult  or  crisis,  contagion  sweeps  the  throng ;  a 
crowd  in  the  psychological  sense  is  formed. 

This  is  no  mere  sum  total  of  the  individuals  com- 

*  This  process  is  especially  marked  in  the  forming  of  a  mob.  "When 
the  preacher,  the  politician,  the  stump  orator,  the  ringleader,  the  hero, 
gains  the  ear  of  the  crowd,"  says  Sidis,  "an  ominous  silence  sets  in,  a 
silence  frequently  characterized  as  'awful.'  The  crowd  is  in  a  state  of 
overstrained  expectation;  with  suspended  breath  it  watches  the  hero 
or  the  interesting,  all-absorbing  object.  Disturbing  impressions  are 
excluded,  put  down,  driven  away  by  main  force.  So  great  is  the  silence 
induced  in  the  fascinated  crowd,  that  very  frequently  the  buzzing  of  a 
fly,  or  even  the  drop  of  a  pin,  can  be  distinctly  heard.  All  interfering 
impressions  and  ideas  are  inhabited.  The  crowd  is  entranced,  and 
rapidly  merges  into  the  mob  state."    Psy.  of  Sug.,  300. 


CONTAGION  147 

posing  it,  but  a  new  psychic  product  with  characteris- 
tics peculiar  to  itself.  This  new  product  is  irrational 
and  impetuous  because  people  do  not  think  under 
excitement.  The  subconscious  self  dominates;  waves 
of  emotionalism  beat  upon  the  brain,  suggestibility  is 
heightened,  the  reverberations  from  each  member  enor- 
mously multiply  the  contagion.  Suggestions  are  em- 
braced with  fervor;  the  throng  feels  itself  possessed 
of  irresistible  power,  and  its  members,  since  the  crowd 
is  anonymous,  freed  from  individual  responsibility,  set 
about  its  acts  with  irresistible  impetuosity. 

Because  its  force  is  cumulative,  suggestion  may 
throw  a  vast  power  into  the  hands  of  one  man,  the 
leader.  At  a  gesture  from  the  Little  Corporal,  regi- 
ments of  French  youth  strove  like  super-men  amid  war's 
carnage.  Himself  only  a  boy  of  ten,  Nicholas  of  Cologne 
drew  one  hundred  thousand  into  the  Children's  Crusade, 
led  them  through  hardships  which  thinned  their  ranks 
a  third.  A  penniless  adventurer,  John  Law,  so  dazzled 
the  populace  with  visions  of  wealth  that  all  Paris  went 
money-mad.  A  hitherto  unknown  Jew,  Sabbathai 
Zevi,  threw  his  countrymen  into  religious  intoxication 
upon  declaring  his  Messiahship ;  business  men  devoted 
themselves  to  prayers  and  penitence,  the  synagogues  re- 
soimded  with  cries,  sighs,  and  sobs  for  days  at  a  time,  the 
fame  of  Sabbathai  spread  throughout  the  world,  and 
many  in  prophetic  rapture  raved,  "  True  Messiah  of 
the  race  of  David ;  to  him  the  crown  and  kingdom  are 
given !  "  And  much  could  be  said  of  Dowie  and  Miller 
and  Smith,  and  a  host  of  others  who  have  waved  the 
magic  wand  over  brain-stormed  followers. 

But  this,  it  will  be  said,  is  mobbishness ;  few  groups 
ever  exhibit  such  extreme  contagion,  and  what  sensible 
executive,  moreover,  would  wish  that  they  should? 
Quite  so.    But  the  difiference  is  one  of  degree,  not  kind. 


148  SUGGESTION 

The  street  riot  and  the  directors'  meeting,  however  sharp 
their  contrast  may  be,  have  at  least  this  element  in 
common,  their  collective  action  is  influenced  by  sugges- 
tion. This  power,  coming  into  play  whenever  men  asso- 
ciate together,  always  to  a  degree  overrules  the  indi- 
vidual mind  and  dictates  the  decision.  Suggestion 
power,  therefore,  is  something  which  every  organization 
head  should  develop  and  guide  to  his  own  ends. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Account  psychologically  for  a  financial  panic.  A  run  on  a 
bank.     How  employ  suggestion  to  avert  either? 

2.  Illustrate  how  the  advertiser  employs  suggestion.  The 
salesman.     The  revivalist.     The  borrower. 

3.  Analyze  from  the  standpoint  of  suggestion  the  careers  of 
Dowie,  Joseph  Smith,  Captain  Cook. 

4.  Explain,  by  personal  experience  if  possible,  the  theory  of 
hypnotism. 

5.  Analyze  Antony's  funeral  oration  with  respect  to  directness 
of  suggestion.     {Julius  CcEsar,  Act  III,  Sc.  II.) 

6.  What  basis  has  the  Indian  motto,  "A  stuffed  prophet  shall 
not  know  secret  things"?  A  bank  president's  statement,  "The 
best  way  to  drown  the  anvil  chorus  is  to  keep  on  delivering  the 
goods  "  ? 

7.  Discuss  the  press  agent  as  a  factor  in  political  campaigns. 
As  an  ally  of  public  service  corporations. 

READINGS 

Le  Bon,  The  Crowd,  Book  II,  Ch.  III. 

Smis,  The  Psychology  of  Suggestion,  Chs.  I,  XXVII,  XXXIII. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
Emulation 

"For  men  'tis  not  enough  to  be  alive; 
The  noblest  joy  of  being  is  to  strive."    —  Stark. 

"We  believe  that  the  good  men  are  the  men  who  want  to 
win."  — Walter  H.  Cottingham. 

In  the  late  '6o's  two  great  railroads,  one  starting  at 
Sacramento,  California,  the  other  at  Omaha,  Nebraska, 
were  pushing  across  the  Western  plains  toward  each 
other.  On  many  a  day  the  construction  gangs  of  the 
two  companies  laid  more  miles  of  track  than  an  ox 
team  averaged  in  a  day's  travel  on  the  old  overland 
trail.  "  Such  performances  as  these,"  says  Carter,^ 
"  attracted  the  attention  of  the  newspapers  in  the 
East,  which  began  to  send  their  star  correspondents  to 
the  front  and  to  announce  the  number  of  miles  of  track 
laid  each  day,  as  baseball  scores  are  announced  nowa- 
days. 

"  All  this  notoriety  spurred  the  rival  construction 
gangs  to  renewed  exertions  and  made  them  boastful. 
One  day  the  Union  Pacific  laid  six  miles  of  track.  The 
Central  Pacific  thereupon  laid  seven  miles  of  track. 
Upon  hearing  of  this  feat  the  Union  Pacific  laid  seven  and 
a  half  miles. 

"  The  Central  Pacific  authorities  declared  their  men 
could  lay  ten  miles  in  one  working  day  if  they  wanted 

^  When  Railroads  were  New,  254-255  passim. 
149 


ISO  EMULATION 

to.  Vice-President  Durant,  of  the  Union  Pacific, 
offered  to  bet  ten  thousand  dollars  that  they  couldn't 
do  it.  The  money  was  covered,  and  April  29,  1869,  was 
set  as  the  day  for  the  race. 

"  A  large  party  of  distinguished  guests  assembled 
to  see  the  bet  decided.  Four  thousand  men,  trained  by 
the  discipline  of  four  years  to  the  precision  of  a  machine, 
began  their  mighty  task  on  the  stroke  of  seven  o'clock. 
Most  of  the  working  force  was  composed  of  Chinamen, 
but  the  Chinamen  were  not  heavy  enough  to  lay  the 
rails. 

"  For  this  work  there  were  eight  stalwart  Irishmen, 
whose  names  have  been  handed  down  to  posterity  — 
Michael  Shay,  Pat  Joyce,  Thomas  Daly,  Mike  Kennedy, 
Fred  McNamara,  Ed  Killeen,  Mike  Sullivan,  and  George 
Wyatt.  They  handled  the  rails  at  the  rate  of  one 
minute  forty-seven  and  a  half  seconds  to  each  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  feet. 

"  In  six  hours  they  had  laid  eight  miles  of  track,  so* 
they  nailed  a  board  with  the  word  ^  Victory  '  on  it  to  a 
stake,  and  stopped  for  dinner  on  the  boarding  train, 
which  was  now  run  up.  After  the  usual  noon  rest  of 
one  hour,  work  was  resumed.  At  exactly  7  p.m.  ten 
miles  and  two  hundred  feet  of  track  had  been  laid.  .  .  . 
Then,  to  prove  that  the  job  was  well  done,  Campbell, 
the  boarding  boss,  got  on  the  locomotive  and  ran  the 
heavy  train  back  over  the  ten  miles  of  newly  laid  track 
in  forty  minutes."  Under  the  spur  of  emulation  was 
performed  that  day  a  track-laying  feat  never  since 
equaled. 

Rivalry  places  the  social  self  in  jeopardy.  It  forces 
upon  this  self  the  prospect  of  failure,  of  being  relegated 
to  inferior  positions ;  and  the  prospect  of  ascendancy  as 
well,  of  displaying  power  before  onlookers.  It  thus 
becomes  an  impulse  of   the  most   far-reaching  social 


MAKING  WORK  A  GAME  151 

importance,^  and  exercises  an  influence  upon  the  organ- 
ism of  an  intensely  stimulating  sort.  Laboratory  experi- 
ments indicate  that  the  prick  of  emulation  retards 
fatigue  and  hberates  latent  energy  not  otherwise  avail- 
able.^   Here  is  a  force ;  how  may  executives  employ  it  ? 

THE   EMULATION  POLICY 

The  emulation  policy  rests  upon  the  assumption  that 
deep  down  in  the  heart  of  every  man  is  the  desire  to 
win,  that  all  men  are  not  equal  and  should  in  tests  be 
allowed  to  prove  they  are  not.  The  lethargic  and  the 
humanitarians,  it  is  true,  exalt  equality ;  but  the  ordi- 
nary many  love  power  and  self-assertion  and  the  discom- 
fiture of  competitors.  The  vast  majority  of  men  are 
anxious  to  align  themselves,  their  pulse  being  quickened 
when  a  race  is  on.  Accordingly,  the  contest  element  is 
introduced  whenever  possible ;  work  is  made  a  game. 

In  introducing  competition  or  the  game  element, 
rivalry  may  be  instituted  between : 

(i)  Leader  and  Followers. — This  is  a  very  old  method, 
according  to  Tacitus  it  having  prevailed  among  our 

^  Of  no  other  peoples  is  this  so  true  as  of  the  western  Europeans. 
"With  us,"  says  McDougall,  "it  supplies  the  zest  and  determines  the 
forms  of  almost  all  our  games  and  recreations ;  and  Professor  James  is 
guilty  of  picturesque  exaggeration  only,  when  he  says  '  nine-tenths  of  the 
work  of  the  world  is  done  by  it.'  Our  educational  system  is  founded 
upon  it ;  it  is  the  social  force  underlying  an  immense^  amount  of  stren- 
uous exertion ;  to  it  we  owe,  in  a  great  measure,  even  our  science,  our 
literature,  and  our  art ;  for  it  is  a  strong,  perhaps  an  essential,  element  of 
ambition,  that  last  infirmity  of  noble  minds,  in  which  it  operates  through, 
and  under  the  direction  of,  a  highly  developed  social  self-consciousness. 
The  emulation  impulse  tends  to  assert  itself  in  an  ever-widening  sphere 
of  social  life,  encroaching  more  and  more  upon  the  sphere  of  the  combative 
impulse,  and  supplanting  it  more  and  more  as  a  prime  mover  of  both 
individuals  and  societies."    Soc.  Psy.,  294. 

2  See  Triplett,  "The  Dynamogenic  Factors  in  Pacemaking  and  Com- 
petition," Am.  Jour.  Soc,  VI,  507-533;  and  Wright,  "Some  Effects  of 
Incentives  on  Work  and  Fatigue,"  Psychological  Rev.,  XIII,  23-34. 


IS2  EMULATION 

early  ancestors.  The  ancient  German  chieftain  was 
disgraced  if  excelled  in  valor,  and  since  it  was  consid- 
ered equally  disgraceful  for  a  warrior  to  be  surpassed 
by  his  chief,  we  have  here  some  explanation  for  the 
fierce  courage  shown  by  both.  It  may  be  said  to  be  a 
racial  trait  that  subordinates  expect  in  their  leader  a 
pattern  for  emulation.  Should  the  executive  satisfy 
this  expectation,  he  possesses  a  two-edged  weapon;  it 
sets  forth  right  action  and  represses  all  other.  When 
Alexander's  soldiers  dissented  from  his  plans  for  wider 
conquest,  he  quashed  the  threatened  mutiny  by  point- 
ing out  how  he  himself  had  fared.  Charlemagne,  ac- 
cording to  the  old  tale  sung  at  castle  dinner  gatherings, 
once  made  firm  his  wavering  soldiers  by  putting  into 
their  mouths  these  tormenting  words,  "  We  left  him  to 
besiege  Narbonne  alone !  "  Carnegie's  rise  from  one 
dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  a  week,  the  push  of  the 
office  manager  once  office  boy,  the  vigorous  example 
of  executives  everywhere,  furnish  a  keen  incentive  to 
subordinates  to  go  thou  and  do  likewise. 

(2)  Individuals  and  Groups  within  Organization. — 
The  employee  pitted  against  his  co-workers  strives  for 
first  place  within  his  group,  then  for  supremacy  over  the 
winner  in  a  competing  group,  a  plan  which,  skillfully 
adjusted  to  include  men  of  every  rank,  subjects  the 
whole  organization  to  the  emulative  impulse.^ 

*  This  has  been  well  worked  out  by  President  Cottingham  of  the 
Sherwin-Williams  Co.,  whose  sales  force  is  probably  unsurpassed  in  the 
world.  "We  have  what  we  call  the  *Top-Notcher  Trade  Sales  Compe- 
tition,' through  which  we  urge  every  member  of  our  selling  organization 
to  better  efforts  by  reason  of  honors  and  money  prizes.  Every  member 
of  the  selling  force  tries  to  be  the  top-notcher  in  his  district,  the  top- 
notchers  of  a  district  are  in  competition  with  other  districts,  and  the 
district  managers  are  keen  to  turn  in  higher  sales  than  other  districts, 
thereby  involving  a  competition  from  the  lone  salesman  up  to  the  branch 
managers  within  the  very  headquarters  ofl&ce."  Printers^  Inky  Feb.  13, 
1914. 


KINDS  OF  CONTESTS  153 

Where  the  individual's  efforts  are  so  merged  into 
those  of  the  groups  that  his  own  results  cannot  be 
sifted  out  for  comparison,  competition  is  instituted 
between  these  groups  instead.  Carnegie  pitted  plant 
against  plant.  Corey  as  head  of  one  plant,  he  made 
pace  setter  for  Schwab,  and  Peacock  for  both  the  others. 
This  was  a  method  the  "  Little  Iron  Master  "  probably 
learned  while  employed  by  the  Pennsylvania  system. 
Our  railroads  for  purposes  of  administration  are  sepa- 
rated into  divisions,  and  whereas  British  managers  never 
know  what  other  sections  of  the  road  are  doing,  American 
managers  constantly  compare  these  units  in  their  per- 
formance. Statistics  and  cost  records  are  said  to  be  dull 
reading,  but  never  to  groups  vying  for  superiority. 

(3)  Organization  and  ^^  Enemy ^  —  This  type  of  con- 
test, "  our  organization  vs.  competitors,"  supplies  much 
of  the  driving  force  among  officials  in  business  and 
industry ;  yet  it  has  not  been  utilized  as  it  should  be 
among  the  humble  employees.  They,  too,  will  come 
to  feel  zest  by  being  brought  into  the  great  game.  The 
normal  individual  quite  readily  develops  loyalty  to  his 
own  group  and  enmity  toward  all  competitors.  The 
enemy  has  long  meant  merely  the  outsider,  and  a  belli- 
cose disposition  has  never  been  lacking  in  mankind. 

In  poUtics,  especially,  advantage  is  taken  of  this  fact. 
The  contest  is  termed  a  "  campaign,"  and  much  is  said 
of  the  party  "  war  chest,"  "  carrying  war  into  the  enemy's 
country,"  "  laying  siege  to  his  stronghold,"  "  first 
blood,"  "  fight  to  the  finish."  Upon  the  least  show  of 
apathy,  spellbinders  and  candidates  alike  employ  this 
picturesque  language,  bloodthirsty,  drawn  from  war 
and  prize  ring.  During  the  last  presidential  election, 
one  candidate  assures  us,  "  I  want  to  fight  for  the  liber- 
ties of  the  American  people."  Another  says  he  is 
"  proud  to  fight  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  the  men  and 


154  EMULATION 

women  in  the  ranks."  After  the  ballots  are  counted, 
the  successful  candidate  finds  the  results  "  a  clear-cut 
victory  for  the  people  " ;  the  defeated  one  declares  "  the 
fight  has  just  begun."  By  such  tactics  an  election 
arouses  tremendous  interest,  and  since  the  struggle  for 
orders  is  quite  as  keen  as  the  struggle  for  votes,  the 
wise  manager  will  pass  the  news  along. 

(4)  Worker  and  Records.  —  Each  summer  hundreds 
of  players  and  millions  of  "  fans  "  become  thoroughly 
stirred  over  certain  columns  of  percentages  on  the  score 
sheet,  a  clear  indication  of  how  stimulating  a  mere 
record-breaking  contest  may  be.  It  means  satisfac- 
tion to  salesman,  batter,  or  pieceworker  to  beat  his  last 
year's  record.  Like  a  tantalizing  enemy  this  shade  of 
his  former  self  has  risen  before  him,  and  he  has  now 
bowled  it  over  —  prowess  is  still  his ! 

Comparisons  of  all  sorts  are  possible  and  workable. 
It  may  be  "  this  week  with  last  week,"  "  this  week 
against  the  same  week  last  year,"  "  that  top-notch 
record  of  Smith's,"  or  scores  of  similar  plans.  Setting 
in  advance  the  result  desired  is  another  method.  The 
set  task  is  a  challenge.  Even  in  factories  where  piece- 
work is  done,  a  ticket  on  which  the  office  states  the 
amount  expected  that  day  brings  increase  of  output. 
If  the  worker  himself  sets  up  a  mark  for  attainment, 
the  same  result  is  secured.  Even  boasting  may  yield 
the  forward  impi^lse,  for  the  boaster  places  himself  in 
jeopardy  and  onward  is  the  way  out.^ 

^  President  A.  Montgomery  Ward  likes  to  hear  his  men  talk  of  what 
they  are  going  to  do.  "You  see,  men  who  talk  that  way  have  to  make 
good  or  be  humiliated.  Their  boastful  words  would  be  hard  to  swallow 
in  case  of  failure.  So  they  lie  awake  nights  thinking  how  to  win,  get 
down  early,  and  hustle.  The  whole  place  gets  full  of  the  infection.  The 
other  departments  wake  up  and  enter  the  race.  And  the  result  is  a 
heavy  gain  all  along  the  line  and  a  fine  esprit  de  corps  that  keeps  things 
on  the  go."    Business  Man's  Library,  IX,  9. 


«  PROMOTION  155 

(5)  Individual  and  Advancement.  —  Human  nature  is 
an  unfolding,  a  reshaping,  always  in  process.  The  actual 
man  is  to  his  own  consciousness  often  less  real  than  his 
ideal  self ;  and  the  position  held  frequently  has  less  power 
with  him  than  that  to  which  he  aspires.  The  possi- 
biUty  of  advancement  thus  introduces  emulation  in  its 
subtlest  form.  And  in  so  far  as  they  have  come  to  see 
this,  executives  realize  the  value  inhering  in  a  good  pro- 
motion system  and  accept  the  view  that  each  employee 
is  a  double,  what  he  is  and  what  he  may  be. 

Says  President  WooUey  of  the  American  Radiator 
Company :  "  In  our  own  experience  every  young  man  is 
regarded  in  the  light  of  a  possible  future  executive.  Our 
company  has  developed  a  plan  of  self-perpetuity.  We 
have  never  gone  outside  of  our  own  organization  to  fill 
executive  positions,  but  each  head  is  expected  to  de- 
velop and  train  his  successor,  so  that  when  the  time 
comes  for  promotion,  there  will  be  an  available  man  to 
step  into  every  place  left  open."  ^ 

"  I  go  over  my  pay  roll  every  Saturday  night,"  writes 
another  manufacturer,  "  to  see  whose  salary  I  can 
raise.  My  men  are  no  more  anxious  for  advancement 
than  I  am  to  promote  them."  Carnegie  made  his  steel 
mills  forcing  plants  for  men,  drawing  managers  from 
the  ranks  and  making  milhonaires  of  his  young  lieu- 
tenants. "  Promotion,"  says  A.  Montgomery  Ward, 
"  is  what  we  seek  more  strenuously  than  even  our 
employees  do !  " 

The  promotion  policy  requires  that  men  lacking 
promise  be  dismissed,  and  that  around  those  retained 
every  method  of  development  be  brought  to  bear. 
When  these  learn  that  capacity  for  advancement  is  the 
thing  desired,  they  will  respond  with  enthusiasm  and 
efficiency. 

*  Business  Man^s  Library,  VIII,  65. 


iS6  EMULATION 


EMULATION   GOOD  AND  BAD 

The  emulation  policy  presents  some  decided  advan- 
tages. It  is  quick  and  vigorous  in  action.  Witness  the 
rush  of  men  to  a  street  fight,  the  immense  throngs  at  a 
football  game,  the  yell  of  delight  when  the  politician 
"  pitches  into  the  bosses,"  the  enthusiasm  which  marked 
the  progress  of  the  great  "  fighters  "  in  a  recent  national 
campaign,^  the  resolve  which  lights  the  eyes  of  his 
hearers  when  the  President  calls  for  warriors  of  peace. 

Emulation  may  also  be  continuous  in  its  influence, 
since  the  mind  acts  upon  its  opinions  and  nothing  causes 
such  zealous  belief  in  these  as  having  fought  for  them. 
The  revolutionary  struggles  spread  the  ideals  of  Liberty, 
Equality,  and  Fraternity  from  philosophers  to  the  far 
confines  of  France  and  made  fervent  advocates  of  a 
peasantry  who  hitherto  were  but  men  with  hoes.  The 
Boers  never  more  revered  the  policies  of  Oom  Paul 
than  after  the  Transvaal  had  been  laid  waste  in  their 
defense.  Similarly  have  been  impressed  the  American 
love  for  liberty  and  toleration  and  freedom  from  taxation 
without  representation ;  and  similarly  may  be  impressed 
a  belief  in  the  superiority  of  one's  own  organization 
and  willingness  to  strive  mightily  that  its  achievements 
be  not  surpassed.  If  ideas  are  to  be  made  a  continuous 
motivating  force,  let  men  fight  for  them. 

Emulation  exalts  the  strong  and  efficient.    The  pre- 

*  A  reporter  gives  the  following  description  of  Governor  Johnson  at 
Chicago  in  June,  191 2:  "The  first  notes  of  his  voice  keyed  up  your 
nerves  to  a  fighting  pitch.  We  can't  imagine  any  one's  listening  to 
Johnson  for  five  minutes  without  wanting  to  fight  —  either  to  fight  with 
him  or  to  fight  against  him.  His  voice  sounds  just  as  an  east  wind  feels. 
It  grates  and  snarls  and  pierces,  and  puts  you  all  on  edge.  The  whole 
man  goes  with  the  voice.  Every  posture  and  gesture  is  one  of  inten- 
sity.^ His  hands  are  nearly  always  clenched.  His  muscles  are  tense. 
His  jaw,  a  good  strong  fighting  jaw,  is  set."  And  his  running  mate  was 
like  unto  him  I 


A  SPUR  TO  PROGRESS  157 

mium  is  placed  on  victory,  and  victory  to  be  worthy  must 
be  won.  All  methods  available  for  this  purpose,  be  they 
old  or  new,  it  matters  little,  are  pressed  into  service; 
others  are  eagerly  sought,  the  sole  criterion  being,  Will 
they  prove  effective?  Hence  competition  insures  rapid 
change,  with  a  high  death  rate  among  practices  hallowed 
by  tradition.  The  backward  look,  blind  worship  of 
precedent,  routine  elaborated  into  "  red  tape,"  nepotism, 
all  are  "  scrapped "  under  the  ruthless  demand  for 
results  at  lowest  unit  cost. 

Even  war  for  this  reason  has  merit.  It  destroys  the 
antedated  and  the  useless,  and  especially  in  those  of  the 
offensive,  it  favors  the  open  mind.  The  invaders,  as 
Morris  points  out,^  not  only  leave  their  country  behind 
them,  but  much  of  their  social  heritage  as  well.  "  They 
march  imder  new  skies,  over  new  soils,  through  new 
climates.  They  come  into  the  closest  contact  with  new 
customs,  laws,  and  conditions.  And  their  local  preju- 
dices only  partially  march  with  them.  The  laws  of 
the  peaceful  state  are  abrogated  in  the  army.  Its 
members  are  brought  under  other  laws  and  discipline. 
Religious  influences  weaken.  A  sense  of  Hberty  fills 
the  mind  of  the  soldier ;  expectancy  arises ;  new  hopes 
and  fears  are  engendered ;  the  old  quiet  devotion  to  law 
becomes  a  tendency  to  license. 

"  Thus  the  mind  of  the  soldier  is  in  a  state  essentially 
unlike  that  of  the  peaceful  citizen.  It  is  in  a  state 
rendering  it  a  quick  and  ready  solvent  of  new  experi- 
ences. All  its  fixity  of  ideas  is  broken  up,  the  deep 
foundations  of  its  prejudices  are  shaken,  it  is  in  a  recep- 
tive condition;  fresh  thoughts  readily  pass  the  broken 
barriers  of  its  reserve." 

Yet  however  valuable  is  the  contest  idea,  if  it  is  to 
be  realized  in  practice,  there  must  he  something  for  which 

*  Quoted  by  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  248-249. 


iS8  EMULATION 

to  strive.  This  will  no  doubt  readily  be  granted.  Still, 
many  an  executive  is  now  exhorting  his  men  to  climb 
mountains  when  he  has  scarce  provided  a  little  hill. 
To  climb  high  men  need  a  strong  incentive. 

This  incentive  some  have  sought  in  cash  prizes,  in 
merchandise  prizes,  or  a  percentage  on  sales  above  a 
certain  amount.^  Simply  because  "  $500  in  gold  for 
the  best  August  sales  record  "  has  been  offered,  they 
would  have  a  salesman  vigorously  tramping  the  blister- 
ing pavements,  and  he  often  fails  so  to  do.  Money 
motive  must  be  supplemented  by  honor  motive;  and 
this  in  turn  by  the  joy  there  is  in  playing  merely  for  the 
love  of  winning.  The  executive  knows  this  is  true  of 
himself;  not  the  money  alone  but  the  honor  as  well 
and  the  thrill  to  be  in  action  playing  as  an  expert  the 
greatest  game  in  the  world,  business.  To  men  thus 
motivated  the  rewards  become  secondary;  the  accom- 
plishment primary. 

In  practice  —  to  point  out  another  defect  —  emula- 
tion is  often  too  restricted  in  its  scope.  When  the  compe- 
tition is  announced,  many,  regarding  themselves  out- 
classed at  the  start,  refuse  to  enter  the  lists.  Others 
withdraw  upon  the  slightest  indication  that  their  chances 
are  poor.  This  narrowing  continues  until  only  a  hand- 
ful really  at  heart  are  feeling  the  zest  of  contest.  A 
difl&culty  of  this  sort  should  be  obviated  by  a  judicious 
system  of  handicapping  or  other  method  for  insuring 
equal  opportmiity  to  all.^ 

1  See  Ch.  XVII  on  rewards. 

•President  Cottingham  tells  the  plan  followed  by  his  company: 
"There  are  some  salesmen  who  are  in  what  might  be  termed  fertile  ter- 
ritory, where  the  number  of  sales  and  the  amount  reached  would  more 
than  overbalance  that  of  a  salesman  in  a  harder  territory.  It  would 
be  illogical  to  expect  the  high  results  from  a  salesman  in  territory  of 
small  towns  and  sparse  settlements  as  from  the  man  in  densely  populated 
districts.  To  overcome  this  we  get  estimates  for  the  coming  year's 
business  from  the  salesman  himself,  his  district  manager,  the  general 


RULES  OF  THE  GAME  159 

Still  another  difficulty  is  that  in  the  struggle  for  victory 
quality  often  suffers.  The  vote  getter,  the  bricklayer, 
the  evangelist,  the  salesman,  under  the  competitive  spur, 
may  take  an  extremely  shortsighted  view ;  "  After  us, 
the  deluge !  "  A  wise  selection  of  standards  under  which 
winners  qualify  is  the  surest  way  to  obviate  this  defect. 

Emulation,  moreover,  readily  degenerates  into  anger, 
envy,  jealousy,  and  hate.  Instead  of  the  brisk  but 
friendly  pace  expected,  an  executive  too  often  finds  win- 
ners vainglorious,  losers  disgruntled,  selfishness  exalted, 
and  cooperation  destroyed.  The  factional  spirit  creeps 
in,  and  the  forward  moving  becomes  nil. 

The  emulative  impulse,  however,  has  merely  broken 
its  banks  and  flooded  the  fields.  The  margin  between 
it  and  pugnacity,  with  its  bitter  surges  of  emotion,  is 
narrow,  yet  the  remedy  is  not  entire  suppression,  as  some 
have  thought,  but  guidance.  Under  proper  direction, 
its  currents  will  steadily  turn  the  wheels  of  toil.  The 
need  is  but  for  rules  of  the  game,  and  these  enforced. 

In  athletic  contests,  to  take  an  illustration  from  a 
field  in  which  competition  holds  first  rank,  emulation 
though  intense  is  well  restrained.  Let  the  umpire, 
however,  be  unfair  or  unseeing;  there  will  be  reenacted 
the  wranglings  which  have  broken  up  many  a  boy- 
hood game.  Now  it  is  because  the  rules  of  the  game 
are  either  not  well  drawn  up  or  properly  executed  that  so 
much  ill-feeling  at  present  exists  in  politics  and  industry. 
And  it  is  the  wise  manager  who,  before  the  competition 
is  under  way,  plans  so  that  it  shall  not  run  amuck. 

sales  manager,  and  lastly  from  the  chiefs  in  control.  Then  if  a  salesman 
overshoots  the  work  of  estimate,  increases  his  sales  to  a  greater  degree 
than  was  estimated,  his  markings  would  be  equally  as  high  as  those 
from  the  salesman  whose  sales  totaled  a  greater  amount  in  dollars,  but 
whose  sales  did  not  represent  the  effort  put  forth  by  the  one  who  made 
the  smaller  amount  of  sales  in  dollars  and  cents."  Printers'  Ink,  Feb.  13, 
1914. 


i6o  EMULATION 


EXERCISES 


1.  In  the  construction-gang  example  given  at  the  opening  of 
this  chapter  note  point  by  point  the  various  elements  of  incentive. 

2.  Should  one  go  outside  his  organization  in  filling  an  important 
vacancy  ? 

3.  Why  do  so  few  men  from  the  shops  advance  into  managerial 
positions? 

4.  What  attitude  do  labor  unions  take  toward  the  view,  ''once 
a  laborer  always  a  laborer"?  Of  what  influence  upon  the  labor 
problem? 

5.  With  reference  to  some  specific  organization,  what  may  be 
made  the  basis  of  a  contest  ? 

6.  Mention  the  best  contest  you  have  witnessed,  and  outline 
the  various  elements  through  which  its  success  was  assured. 

READINGS 

McDouGALL,  Social  Psychology,  Ch.  XI. 

HoYT,  Scientific  Sales  Management,  Chs.  XIII-XIV. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Art 

"You  call  these  toys?"  observed  Napoleon  of  the  ribbons 
and  crosses  of  his  Legion  of  Honor.  "Well,  you  manage  men 
with  toys!  " 

The  r61e  of  actor  or  stage  manager  is  never  without 
its  influence  in  leadership.  Chatham,  it  was  claimed, 
upon  meeting  a  bishop  "  bowed  so  low  his  nose  could  be 
seen  between  his  knees."  Sam  Houston,  an  old  asso- 
ciate remarked,  was  always  acting ;  "he  appreciated 
the  value  of  a  scene."  And  quite  as  deft  as  playwright 
did  Tetzel  employ  the  paraphernalia  of  both  church 
and  state.  The  bells  of  town  or  city  announced  his 
approach;  the  officials  of  the  place,  the  citizens,  and 
even  the  school  children,  marched  in  procession  to  meet 
him.  A  red  cross,  emblazoned  with  the  Pope's  coat  of 
arms,  preceded  him.  On  a  velvet  cushion  his  papal 
commission  was  displayed.  Once  inside  the  church, 
the  red  cross  was  raised  in  front  of  the  high  altar,  the 
indulgence  chest  was  placed  beside,  and  the  real  per- 
formance began.  Indulgences  were  extolled  as  being 
manna  dropped  from  Heaven,  while  other  graphic  pic- 
tures, drawn  of  Purgatory  with  seven  years'  penalty 
reserved  for  every  mortal  sin,  terrorized  his  simple 
hearers.^ 

But  all  ordinary  stage  trappings  were  eclipsed  by  the 
elaborateness  of  the  Ancient  Regime.     "  You  have  seen 

^  Jacobs,  Luther,  63-64. 
H  161 


i62  ART 

nothing,"  says  Chateaubriand,  "  if  you  have  not  seen 
the  pomp  of  Versailles,  even  after  the  disbanding  of 
the  king's  household;  Louis  XIV  was  always  there." 
Says  Taine,^  "  It  was  a  swarm  of  liveries,  uniforms, 
costumes,  and  equipages  as  brilliant  and  as  varied  as 
in  a  picture.  It  was  made  expressly  to  be  painted,  being 
specially  designed  for  the  pleasure  of  the  eye,  like  an 
operatic  scene." 

Formalism  did  not  here  extend  its  sway  merely  over 
the  externals  of  life,  the  banquets,  receptions,  hunts, 
balls,  weddings,  and  drives  in  state,  but  penetrated  into 
every  detail  of  his  family,  table,  wardrobe,  chamber,^ 
stable,  or  chapel.  The  king  could  not  change  his  boots 
without  a  ceremony,  in  fact  he  could  not  reach  the  point 
of  donning  his  shirt  in  the  morning  without  having  gone 
through  four  ceremonies,  and  this  act  involved  a  fifth. 
Louis  himself  was  the  central  figure  in  the  monarchical 
show,  and,  as  Bolingbroke  adds,  if  he  was  not  the  greatest 
king,  he  was  the  best  actor  of  majesty,  at  least,  that 
ever  filled  a  throne.  To  what  is  due  this  motivating 
force  found  by  Louis  adhering  in  pompous  parade,  Tet- 
zel  in  dramatic  picture  of  heaven  and  hell,  Luther  in 
his  hymns,  Houston  in  his  sombrero  ? 

Evidently  to  something  deeply  laid  in  human  nature. 
And  this  upon  analysis  is  found  to  be  true.  These 
leaders  have  molded  men  with  thedramatist's  touch,  which 

1  The  Ancient  Regime,  91. 

'The  king's  apartments  are  thus  described:  "Two  principal  digni- 
taries preside  over  this  and  each  has  under  him  about  a  hundred  subor- 
dinates .  .  .  in  all  198  persons  for  domestic  service,  like  so  many  domes- 
tic utensils  for  every  personal  want  or  as  sumptuous  pieces  of  furniture 
for  the  decoration  of  the  apartment.  Some  of  them  fetch  the  mall  and 
balls,  others  hold  the  mantle  and  cane,  others  comb  the  king's  hair  and 
dry  him  after  a  bath,  others  drive  the  mules  which  transport  his  bed, 
others  watch  his  pet  greyhounds  in  his  room,  others  fold,  put  on,  and 
tie  his  cravat,  and  others  fetch  and  carry  his  easy  chair.  Some  there 
are  whose  main  business  it  is  to  fill  a  comer  which  must  not  be  left 
empty."    Taine,  op.  cU.,  96-97. 


ART'S  POWER  OF  APPEAL  163 

means  that  in  one  form  or  another  they  employed  art. 
Now  the  essence  of  art  is  harmony ;  its  elements  are  fit- 
ness and  beauty.  From  this  more  fundamental  point  of 
view,  art  is  not  something  merely  for  the  salon,  but  a 
living  principle,  a  force  which  permeates  all  activity. 
Art  for  its  own  sake,  a  claim  often  urged,  is  basicly 
untrue;  art  is  for  Hfe's  sake  and  it  rises  to  its  highest 
plane  of  effectiveness  only  as  it  makes  possible  more  life. 
Because  of  natural  selection  —  and  not  due  to  some 
critic  or  a  school  which  flourishes  for  a  day  and  then  is 
not  —  all  its  forms  and  phases  have  been  woven  into  the 
social  heritage  and  there  has  been  developed  so  widely 
among  men  the  feeling  for  beauty  and  the  sense  of  the 
fitness  of  things.    These  things  have  made  for  survival. 

THE  SERVICE  OF  ART 

Personal  ascendancy,  it  would  follow,  does  not  rest 
solely  upon  doing  things ;  there  must  be  method,  fitness, 
workmanship,  in  a  word,  art.  The  principle  is  simple, 
its  applications  numerous.  The  Assyrian  kings  spoke 
no  command  save  from  the  throne.  Alexander  in  his 
victories  had  an  eye  to  their  dramatic  effect,  and  as 
unique  as  his  conquests  was  his  method  of  celebrating 
them.  Garibaldi,  when  he  wished  to  meet  his  volunteers, 
appointed  for  assembly  place  the  Piazza  of  St.  Peter's 
—  and  he  came  late.  Saladin  builded  such  a  Great 
Palace  that  of  its  size  and  splendor  the  Arabian  histo- 
rians speak  with  bated  breath.  Robert  Bruce  before 
all  his  followers  smote  his  English  antagonist  such  a 
blow  on  the  helmet  that  the  ax  clove  his  head  from 
crown  to  chin.  Louis  Napoleon  alternately  played 
upon  the  French  love  for  national  honor  and  the  glory 
of  his  family  name.  Andrew  Jackson,  to  mention  but 
one  more  example,  created  dramatic  conflicts,  himself 


i64  ART 

appearing  as  an  invincible  Hercules  constantly  meeting 
terrible  monsters  dangerous  to  the  American  people, 
and  slaying  them  all  with  his  mighty  club.  Such  meas- 
ures as  these,  modified  to  fit  the  situation,  bear  fruit; 
the  aesthetic  nature  is  satisfied. 

They  have  a  stimulating  effect  as  well.  In  ancient 
Finland  it  was  beUeved  that  canoes  were  better  built 
when  the  "  boat-building  "  song  was  properly  recited 
by  the  craftsman,  and  no  doubt  this  was  true.  The 
dancer  is  most  agile  when  the  music  is  stirring,  the 
campaigner  would  have  his  brass  band,  Luther's  oppo- 
nents sang  themselves  into  his  ranks  through  use  of 
Protestant  hymns,  Moody  had  his  Sankey,  and  work- 
men the  world  over  sing  songs  of  exhortation.  Art 
stimulates,  and,  as  may  be  observed  again  and  again, 
under  its  influence  one  does  not  so  easily  succumb  to 
fatigue. 

It  is  in  times  of  war,  however,  that  art  as  a  stimulus 
attains  its  maximum.  Here  is  demanded  more  than 
prompt,  vigorous  action  and  the  delay  of  fatigue ;  fear 
must  be  conquered  and  the  passion  of  cruelty  made  over- 
mastering. This  effect  savages  induce  by  sham  fights, 
during  which  the  timorous  native  stiffens  his  courage 
for  the  real  onset ;  or  by  war  songs  the  lust  for  slaughter 
is  provoked.  "  The  savage  blood  of  the  Ahts,"  observed 
a  traveler ,1  "  always  boiled  when  the  war  songs  were 
recited,  their  fingers  worked  convulsively  on  the  paddles, 
and  their  eyes  gleamed  ferociously;  altogether  they 
were  two  hundred  murderous-looking  villains."  Art  is 
thus  able  to  incite  the  savage  to  transient  madness ;  and 
similarly  through  the  deadly  impact  of  phrases  such  as, 
"  Land  for  which  our  fathers  died,"  "  Give  me  liberty 
or  give  me  death,"  "  Remember  the  Maine,"  "  Scot- 
land Forever,"  or  by  the  strains  of  "  Deutschland  Uber 

*  Sproat,  quoted  by  Hirn,  The  Origins  of  Art,  267. 


ART  STIMULATES  165 

AUes,"  "  Star-Spangled  Banner  "  or  the  "  Marseillaise," 
civilized  men  have  been  whetted  to  deeds  of  violence. 

This  stimulation,  moreover,  may  do  much  to  insure 
collective  action.  When  such  activity  is  essential, 
those  phases  of  art  are  developed  which  make  for  inti- 
mate cooperation.  Witness  the  canoe  dances  and  boat- 
ing songs  of  insular  people,  the  sowing  songs  and  har- 
vest dances  of  agriculturists,  and  especially  the  choral 
songs  so  fully  developed  by  warring  people.  Among  the 
peaceful  Hottentots  every  dancer  is  a  law  unto  himself, 
but  their  more  dominant  neighbors,  the  Kaffirs,  act  in 
strict  unison.  The  North  American  Indians  move 
through  their  dances  with  soldier-like  regularity,  while 
the  Maori  warriors  in  their  most  furious  movements  main- 
tain uniformity  and  regularity,  the  slightest  motions  of 
their  fingers  being  simultaneous  and  even  their  eyes 
all  moving  together.  Rhythm,  of  course,  has  an  aes- 
thetic value,  but  viewed  historically  this  function  has 
been  far  surpassed  by  utilitarian  advantages;  it  facili- 
tates common  action. 

Art  in  this  way  has  a  value  for  leaders  long  since  recog- 
nized. Among  savage  tribes,  when  any  task  requiring 
combined  effort  is  to  be  performed,  a  presul  often 
demonstrates  in  dance  or  pantomime  the  sequence  of 
movements  required.^  An  Iroquois  chief  ambitious  to 
lead  a  war  party  would  draw  the  braves  into  a  war  dance 
and  after  rousing  their  passions  in  this  way  would  set 
out  before  their  ardor  had  time  to  cool.  A  Maorian 
with  his  followers  executes  a  military  pantomime  which 
stimulates  the  warriors  to  fight  and  regulates  their  move- 
ments in  battle,  but  more  than  this,  as  a  European 
traveler  has  been  compelled  to  admit,  it  "  strikes  terror 
into  the  heart  of  any  man."  In  Australia  even  four  or 
five  mischievous  old  women  with  their  chants,  which 

1  Hirn,  op.  cit.,  257. 


i66  ART 

are  accompanied  by  tears  and  groans,  can  soon  work 
forty  or  fifty  men  into  frenzy,  fanatics  ready  for  any  deed 
of  blood. 

ART  AND   THE   EXECUTIVE 

This  racial  experience  is  something  of  which  modern 
executives  may  avail  themselves.  The  Sherwin-Wil- 
liams Co.  coined  a  special  title  for  their  leading 
salesmen,  "  Top  Notchers  " ;  whenever  a  meeting  is 
called  these  top-notchers  have  a  table  or  section  apart 
from  the  others,  their  president  quite  correctly  pointing 
out,  "  You  may  say  this  is  childish,  but  then  you  know 
we  are  but  children  of  the  grown-up  sort."  Another  com- 
pany calls  its  leading  men  "  Record-Breakers."  When 
a  certain  mark  has  been  exceeded,  the  salesman  gets  a 
medal  in  the  shape  of  a  watch  fob ;  if  he  breaks  it  a 
second  time,  he  receives  a  bar  to  hang  below  the  medal, 
and  so  on.  Other  alert  managers  have  transformed 
prosaic  sales  reports  into  spirited  "  motor  races,'^  "  base- 
ball games,"  "  marathon  runs,"  and  like  events,  each 
man  through  pictures,  diagrams,  and  averages  shown 
in  the  house  organs  being  inspired  by  his  own,  or  prodded 
by  his  nearest  competitor's  "  hits,"  "  home  runs,"  or 
"  scores  to  date." 

Officers  of  the  police  and  fire  departments  each  year 
award  medals,  the  mayor  himself  pinning  the  emblem 
upon  the  breast  of  its  possessor  in  full  view  of  "  a  dis- 
tinguished assemblage."  Railroad  executives  bestow 
bands  of  gold  braid  which  conductors  wear  upon  the 
sleeve,  each  band  signifying  so  many  years  of  worthy 
service.^    Y.  M.  C.  A.  "  boosters  "  mark  the  progress 

*  The  Erie  Railroad  has  worked  out  a  unique  plan  for  similariy  honor- 
ing its  engineers.  Its  elements  are  these :  First,  the  Order  of  the  Red 
Spot,  according  to  which  any  engineer  distinguished  for  fine  work  has 
the  number  plate  of  his  engine  painted  bright  red.  Several  privileges, 
such  as  preferred  runs,  preferred  attention  at  the  division  point,  accrue 


EXECUTIVE  AN  ARTIST  167 

of  their  campaign  contributions  by  a  giant  thermometer 
or  a  clock  dial  over  which  a  huge  hand  moves  from  day 
to  day,  underneath  each  being  a  slogan  "  See  it  rise !  " 
or  "  Make  it  strike  12  !  "  Carnegie,  in  his  pitting  plant 
against  plant,  provided  for  that  furnace  which  held  the 
record  for  lowest  production  cost  an  enormous  broom. 
For  the  sake  of  having  this  broom  proudly  displayed 
over  their  furnace,  ironworkers  blistered  their  hands 
and  managers  thought  far  into  the  night.  Vanity  of 
vanities,  all  is  vanity,  is  no  phrase  for  the  executive.  He 
accepts  human  nature  as  it  is,  and  in  no  idle  moment 
has  devised  songs  and  games  and  banners  and  emblems. 

In  conveying  information  from  one  mind  to  another, 
art  possesses  a  unique  power.  An  artist  or  playwright 
with  a  few  bold  strokes,  a  vague  hint  here  and  there, 
produces  a  vivid  picture.  Yet  this  picture  in  reality 
is  not  his  but  rather  the  product  of  the  imagination 
which  he  has  stimulated  and  which,  left  to  itself,  is 
able  to  evolve  briefest  outlines  into  completeness.  Now 
this  same  imaginative  tendency  in  our  nature,  this  possi- 
bility of  vast  increase  through  its  functioning,  serves 
the  painter  or  playwright  no  less  well  than  the  executive. 
He,  too,  is  an  artist,  albeit  this  fact  he  would  be  last  to 
admit. 

In  a  dramatic  way  his  message  is  impressed  upon  sub- 
ordinates  and   followers.     When  accused  of   drunken - 

to  members  of  the  Red  Spot  order.  Second,  a  Roll  of  Honor  is  printed 
each  month,  in  which  appears  a  list  of  the  most  unusual  and  distinctive 
services  rendered  to  the  company  by  its  men.  Third,  as  a  crowning 
tribute  to  its  engineers,  it  was  decided  to  allow  to  each  man  of  long 
service  and  exceptional  loyalty  the  privilege  of  having  his  own  name, 
instead  of  the  usual  number,  painted  on  the  cab  of  his  locomotive.  The 
pride  this  inspires  baffles  description.  Of  the  eighteen  engineers  thus 
far  honored  in  this  way,  not  one  has  ever  varied  once  from  the  pinnacle 
of  perfection  since  he  was  given  his  name  on  his  cab. 

To  this  system  is  due  in  a  measure  the  remarkable  result  accomplished 
by  the  Erie,  the  carrying  of  225,000,000  people  in  the  last  eight  years 
with  only  one  fatality. 


i68  ART 

ness,  he    admits,  "  I  drink   about    as  much  as ," 

naming,  "by  permission,"  an  eminent  divine;  and  he 
follows  this  with  a  crushing  vindication  in  the  courts. 
It  being  rumored  of  another  that  his  chief  lieutenant 
is  disaffected,  he  makes  no  labored  reply ;  they  appear 
at  the  opera  arm  in  arm.  Or  he  rebukes  followers,  as 
Mohammed  once  stilled  the  clamor  for  spoils  by  sud- 
denly plucking  a  hair  from  the  back  of  a  camel  and  in 
raised  voice  saying,  "  By  Allah !  I  have  never  taken 
from  the  common  spoil  the  value  of  that  camel's  hair 
more  than  my  fifth ;  and  that  fifth  has  always  been  ex- 
pended for  your  good."  Or  again  he  lampoons  his 
opponent  in  doggerel,  mean,  undignified,  no  doubt, 
but  strong  because  infectious.  In  a  Broadway  parade 
thousands  once  lustily  sang : 

"Blaine,  Blaine,  James  G.  Blaine, 
Continental  liar  from  the  state  of  Maine!" 

Here,  too,  is  use  for  the  image-stirring  phrase,  the  "  Lib- 
erty, Equahty,  and  Fraternity,"  "  Fifty-four  forty  or 
Fight,"  "  Onward,  Christian  Soldiers,"  "  Home  Rule  for 
Ireland,"  into  which  men  at  one  time  or  another  have 
read  their  intensest  convictions.  Such  phrases,  in  fact 
all  such  means,  are  symbols;  yet  as  such  they  sufl&ce, 
for  the  imagination  works  through  them  with  a  mini- 
mum of  trouble  and  a  maximum  of  output. 

The  leader  in  reality  furnishes  merely  an  arc;  the 
followers  build  up  the  whole  circle  of  his  power.  "  It 
has  frequently  been  noticed,"  says  Cooley,^  "  that 
personal  ascendancy  is  not  necessarily  dependent  upon 
any  palpable  deed  in  which  power  is  manifested,  but  that 
there  is  often  a  conviction  of  power  and  an  expectation 
of  success  that  go  before  the  deed  and  cojatr^l  the  minds 

^  Human  Nature  and  Social  Order,  295-296  passim. 


fflGH  LIGHTS  AND   SHADINGS  169 

of  men  without  apparent  reason.  There  is  something 
fascinating  about  this  immediate  and  seemingly  cause- 
less personal  efficacy,  [yet]  it  appears  to  be  simply  a 
matter  of  impulsive  personal  judgment,  an  impression 
of  power  and  a  sense  of  yielding  due  to  interpretation 
of  the  visible  or  audible  symbols  of  personality.  An- 
other may  impress  us  with  his  power,  and  so  exercise 
authority  over  us,  either  by  grossly  performing  the  act, 
or  by  exhibiting  traits  of  personality  which  convince 
our  imaginations  that  he  can  and  will  do  the  act  if  he 
wishes  to."  And  this  latter,  perhaps,  is  by  far  the  more 
influential.  It  is  this  idea  or  image  of  him  mirrored 
in  the  group  consciousness  and  not  what  he  himself 
necessarily  is,  which  motivates  followers,  a  fact  empha- 
sized by  the  careers  of  Mohammed  and  Dowie  and  Napo- 
leon and,  though  to  a  less  extent  perhaps,  unHmited 
numbers  of  leaders. 

Now  through  increasing  and  retaining  this  divergence 
between  person  and  image,  art  performs  another  service ; 
it  permits  high  lights  and  shadings.  This  "  spot  light 
and  shadow  "  effect  is  of  wide  applicability.  The  skilled 
lawyer  plays  the  spot  light  upon  every  element  favorable 
to  his  case,  trying  to  look  most  cheerful  when  hit  hardest. 
The  new  improvements,  the  perfected  organization,  the 
broken  records,  executives  push  into  the  foreground. 
The  chief  place  at  the  banquet,  the  carefully  timed 
entrance  to  the  platform,  the  open  carriage  preceded  in 
the  procession  by  gorgeous  ranks,^  what  are  these  but 

^  Even  savage  chiefs  are  adept  in  the  use  of  such  means  to  retain 
ascendancy,  as  the  following  description  written  by  two  missionaries 
in  Africa  will  illustrate :  "The  great  monarch  himself  approached.  He 
was  heralded  by  some  eighty  individuals,  each  wearing  a  cap  of  monkey's 
skin  adorned  by  a  golden  plate,  and  each  holding  his  seat  in  his  hand. 
Then  came  the  dwarfs  and  buffoons  in  red  flannel  shirts,  with  the  offi- 
cials of  the  harem ;  there  were  also  sixty  boys,  every  one  of  whom  wore 
a  charm  sewn  up  in  leopard's  skin,  with  written  scraps  from  the  Koran, 
which  were  highly  prized;    this  train  was  followed    by  five  tastefully 


17©  ART 

spot  light  upon  leader  and  shadows  for  followers  ?  Posi- 
tive and  negative  self-feeling  are  thus  induced. 

Art  in  this  way  serves  as  a  means  of  control.  It  tames 
the  ego  in  flippant  offender,  raw  recruit,  awkward  appren- 
tice, vainglorious  lieutenant,  and  binds  him  to  the 
organized  will.  As  Mr.  Spencer  points  out,  "  the  earliest 
kind  of  government,  the  most  general  kind  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  government  which  is  ever  spontaneously 
recommencing,  is  the  government  of  ceremonial  obser- 
vance. [It]  has  ever  had,  and  continues  to  have,  the 
largest  share  in  regulating  men's  lives."  ^ 

Hence  the  inaugural  oath,  the  military  salute,  the 
state  carriage,  the  throne,  crown  and  scepter,  the  titles 
of  nobility,  the  intricacies  of  court  etiquette,  the  splen- 
dor of  a  Durbar.  Similarly  in  law  we  retain  the  robe 
and  wig,  the  grave  demeanor,  the  prescribed  penalties, 
the  archaic  language  —  the  "Guilty  or  not  guilty?" 
the  "  may  God  have  mercy  on  your  soul !  "  Religion 
likewise  is  a  museum  of  antiquity,  its  priestly  robes,  holy 
water,  Latin  service,  crucifix,  and  candlesticks  all  point- 
ing to  an  age  long  past. 

Such  obedience-getting  means  usually  command  slight 

carved  royal  chairs,  hung  round  with  gold  and  silver  bells,  but  all  black, 
being  stained  with  the  blood  of  human  sacrifices. 

"Next,  under  an  enormous  silk  sunshade,  appeared  the  actual  throne 
chair,  encased  with  gold,  and  with  long  golden  pipes  carried  behind  it, 
as  well  as  various  wonderful  vessels  and  articles  of  vertu.  A  peculiar 
music  was  heard  rising  above  the  sound  of  the  horns  and  the  beating  of 
the  drums.  .  .  . 

"Still  larger  fans  and  umbrellas  now  approached,  preceded  by  a  corps 
of  a  hundred  executioners  dancing ;  all  wore  leopard-skin  caps,  and  had 
two  knives  slung  from  their  necks.  The  dismal  death  drum,  whose  three 
beats  were  heard  from  time  to  time,  closed  the  procession. 

"Now  the  music  became  wilder  and  louder,  the  ivory  horns  sounded 
shriller,  the  screaming  and  howling  surpassed  all  description.  Led  by 
an  attendant  under  a  magnificent  sunshade  of  black  velvet,  edged  with 

fold  and  kept  in  constant  motion,  the  royal  potentate  appeared."    Ellis, 
^shi-Speaking  Peoples  of  the  Gold  Coast,  258-259. 
*  Principles  of  Sociology,  II,  3. 


ART  MAY  DEGENERATE  171 

respect  in  the  upward  climbing,  the  reforming  tempera- 
ment, the  men  without  sense  of  the  past ;  yet  once  them- 
selves in  authority  these  radicals  often  reinstate  the  forms 
they  heretofore  sought  to  destroy.  The  explanation  is 
simple ;  efficacy  adheres  in  them.  "  The  reason  why 
institutions  of  control  are  so  full  of  survivals,"  says  Ross, 
"  is  that  such  institutions  work  the  better  the  older 
they  grow,  which  is  not  true  of  a  construction  in  syntax, 
a  funeral  service,  a  pattern  of  tool  or  garment.  De- 
vices in  the  field  of  control,  however  crude  at  first,  im- 
prove with  age  like  wine.  A  duty  enjoined  in  the  old 
sacred  books  on  the  precept  of  an  ancient  sage  binds  us 
more  than  would  the  same  if  it  came  to  us  imhallowed  by 
time.  Crown  and  royal  blood  win  for  the  Emperor 
Dom  Pedro  an  obedience  that  his  republican  successors 
in  Brazil  can  command  only  by  military  force."  ^ 

ELEMENTS  OF  DECADENCE 

Art  in  the  hands  of  a  skilled  stage  manager  is  an  effec- 
tive producer  of  impressions.  It  serves  as  a  canopy  under 
which  the  leader's  real  self  may  find  cover,  a  scenery 
upon  which  followers  may  gaze.  But  through  its 
possibiHty  of  making  the  outer  do  service  for  the  inner, 
an  element  of  decadence  is  introduced,  the  dry  rot  to 
be  found  imdemeath  the  follies  of  fashion,  the  eulogies 
pronounced  over  the  bier  of  public  swindler,  the  pur- 
chased sympathy  of  confessor,  even  the  suavity  of  eti- 
quette. 

Such  degeneracy  is  more  than  a  moral  question,  how- 
ever; it  seriously  hinders  effectiveness.  Art  readily 
passes  over  into  the  formalism  which,  substituting  the 
outer  for  the  inner,  mistakes  this  outer  as  the  end  in 
itself  and  after  a  time  if  left  unassailed  glorifies  the 

^Soc.  Psy.,  273.    Cf.  his  Social  Control,  111-114,  190-194. 


172  ART 

cocoon  in  which  the  vital  impulse  is  encased.  Its 
possibilities  are  therefore  as  completely  nullified  as  were 
the  Grand  Monarch's  during  the  Ancient  Regime. 
"  The  king,"  says  Taine/  "  suffers  the  same  torture  and 
the  same  inaction  as  he  imposes.  He  also  is  playing  a 
part ;  all  his  steps  and  all  his  gestures  have  been  deter- 
mined beforehand ;  he  has  been  obliged  to  arrange  his 
physiognomy  and  his  voice,  never  to  depart  from  an 
affable  and  dignified  air,  to  award  judiciously  his  glances 
and  his  nods,  to  keep  silent  or  to  speak  only  of  the  chase, 
and  to  suppress  his  own  thoughts,  if  he  has  any.  One 
cannot  indulge  in  revery,  meditate  or  be  absent-minded 
when  one  is  before  the  footlights ;  the  part  must  have 
due  attention.  .  .  . 

"  Strictly  speaking  it  is  the  life  of  an  actor  who  is  on 
the  stage  the  entire  day.  To  support  this  load,  and  work 
besides,  required  the  temperament  of  Louis  XIV,  the 
vigor  of  his  body,  the  extraordinary  firmness  of  his 
nerves,  the  strength  of  his  digestion,  and  the  regularity 
of  his  habits ;  his  successors  who  came  after  him  grow 
weary  or  stagger  under  the  same  load.  But  they  cannot 
throw  it  off;  an  incessant,  daily  performance  is  insep- 
arable from  their  position  and  it  is  imposed  on  them 
like  a  heavy,  gilded,  ceremonial  coat.  .  .  .  Verily, 
the  king  resembles  an  oak  stifled  by  the  innumerable 
creepers  which,  from  top  to  bottom,  cling  to  its  trunk." 
Art  the  servant  had  become  formalism  the  despotic 
master.  And  to  present  executives  as  with  Louis  this 
possibility  is  never  absent. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Discuss :  "It  has  been  the  misfortune  of  the  present  admin- 
istration that  its  mistakes  have  been  more  spectacular  than  its 
accomplishments." 

^  The  Ancient  Regime,  104-109  passim. 


EXERCISES  AND   READINGS  173 

2.  Why  is  it  that  a  joke  is  often  worth  two  arguments? 

3.  Explain    how    a    formalized    sympathy,    even    hypocrisy, 
tends  to  develop  in  ministers.     {Atlantic  Monthly,  April,  1913, 

573-) 

4.  Why  do  Americans,  especially  business  men,  underrate  the 
power  of  emblems,  ceremonies,  music,  etc.? 

5.  Over  which  has  art  more  power,  Latin  or  Teuton?    Of  what 
significance  to  plant  managers  ? 

6.  How  can  a  manager  show  graphically  the  accomplishment 
of  the  various  members  of  his  staff? 

READINGS 
Ross,  Social  Control,  Chs.  XIX-XX. 


CHAPTER  XV 
Illusion 

"The  only  real  measure  of  the  social  importance  of  an  idea  is 
the  influence  it  exerts  on  men's  minds.  The  degree  of  truth  or 
error  it  contains  is  only  of  interest  from  a  philosophic  point  of 
view."  — GusTAVE  Le  Bon. 

In  the  management  of  men  there  are  those  whose  sole 
test  of  a  measure  is,  "  Does  it  work?  "  And  to  make 
more  certain  that  it  does,  they  concern  themselves  with 
the  line  between  fact  and  fable,  which,  at  best,  is  faint. 
Under  deft  manipulation  the  senses  are  obsessed  by  the 
shifting  mirage  and  the  judgment  is  tricked  of  its  right- 
ful conclusion.  Possibly  not  for  always,  since  truth,  with 
men  all  scientists  in  some  distant  age,  may  possibly 
become  full  orbed,  but  meanwhile,  at  least,  the  will- 
o'-the-wisp,  magic,  and  the  hidden  wire.  The  intriguer 
has  his  day. 

Deception,  in  fact,  predated  civilization.  It  is  found 
even  among  the  lower  animals,  as  persons  familiar  with 
horses  or  dogs  have  probably  discovered.  Herr  Groos 
tells  the  amusing  story  of  a  pointer  who  shammed  sleep 
after  he  had  stealthily  licked  all  the  clabber  out  of  a 
bowl ;  also  of  a  monkey  caught  when  about  to  rob  a  hen's 
nest,  who  thereupon  tried  to  look  very  artless.^  Dogs 
and  monkeys,  in  turn,  are  far  surpassed  in  guile  by  the 
"  simple  "  savage.  The  nimble  intellect  early  vied  with 
the  strong  arm  as  a  means  of  control.  The  old,  the  ab- 
normal, the  maimed  and  the  blind,  by  magic  incanta- 

^Play  of  Man,  297-299. 
174 


ILLUSION  UNIVERSAL  175 

tions,  spirit  visitations,  swoons  and  trances,  sought  to 
justify  their  right  to  be. 

It  remained  for  later  ages,  however,  to  render  illusion 
a  fine  art.  The  splendid  art  of  diplomacy  refines  some- 
what the  crude  art  of  lying.  The  ablest  diplomat  whom 
Great  Britain  ever  sent  us  is  termed  "  quiet,  altogether 
British  and  unfathomable."  Much  history  has  been 
made  by  men  such  as  he.  George  III  by  a  certain  persis- 
tent astuteness,  by  the  dexterous  utilizing  of  political 
rivalries,  by  cajoling  some  men  and  betraying  others, 
by  a  resolute  adroitness  in  turning  every  opening  to  his 
own  advantage,  built  up  his  own  power  while  steadily 
outwitting  his  opponents.  "  Never,"  declared  Pitt  after 
one  encounter,  "  never  has  he  so  baffled  me."  ^ 

His  coimterpart  has  flitted  across  the  scenes  at  Vienna, 
at  Berlin,  at  Madrid,  in  the  councils  at  St.  Peterburg  and 
the  solemn  conclaves  of  Rome ;  Europe  has  known  Bis- 
marck and  Mettemich,  the  De  Medici,  and  Richelieu. 
In  our  own  country  a  "  little  magician  "  once  maneu- 
vered himself  across  the  slippery  arena  of  Washington 
politics  up  to  the  first  place,  and  others,  though  perhaps 
less  adept,  still  thus  advance  themselves  part  way.  Of 
course  the  demand  now  is,  let  there  be  light.  But 
"  rings  "  and  cliques  with  their  "  bosses  "  and  "  dough 
bags  "  still  persist,  and  as  the  plowshare  of  publicity 
scratches  the  surface  the  wires  are  deeper  laid. 

Be  not  too  absorbed,  however,  over  the  politicians. 
In  what  organization,  be  it  business,  church,  or  reformers' 
club,  has  plain  dealing  ever  approached  the  one  hundred 
per  cent  mark  ?  Illusion  is  a  universal  coloration  process, 
and  of  its  ramifications  there  is  no  end.  In  surveying 
this  activity  one  may  discern  certain  typical  methods 
through  which  it  operates ;  to  a  consideration  of  the  more 
important  of  these  we  now  turn. 

*  Rosebery,  Life  of  William  Pitt,  13. 


176  ILLUSION 

TYPES    OF   ILLUSION 

I.  The  Shifting  of  Attention.  —  Not  what  is,  but  that 
to  which  the  mind  attends  —  this  constitutes  reality 
from  the  view  of  motivation.  And  this  fact  shrewd 
manipulators  have  recognized.  They  keep  the  atten- 
tion fastened  upon  that  which  it  is  their  interest  to  have 
seen. 

A  splendid  exterior  may  so  draw  the  eye  that  the  in- 
terior is  freed  from  scrutiny.^  Log  cabin  and  hard 
cider  pleased  the  backwoodsmen.  What  matter  if 
"Old  Tip"  knew  not  the  tariff?  The  "American 
System  "  had  nothing  peculiarly  American  about  it,  but 
the  name  was  adroitly  chosen  and  served  its  purpose. 
The  "  old  hero  "  as  a  St.  George  killing  the  dragon  or 
an  invincible  champion  of  the  sacred  destinies  of  the 
American  people,  driving  out  "  Old  Nick's  money " 
and  "  Clay's  rags,"  in  his  war  against  the  "  monster 
monopoly "  exercised  a  wonderful  charm  over  the 
popular  imagination.  To  the  gravest  arguments  and 
remonstrances,  the  answer  was,  literally,  "  Hurrah  for 
Jackson !  " 

A  great  cause,  especially  a  divine  cause,  has  a  prestige 
all  its  own.  But  every  great  cause  is  besieged  by  self- 
seeking  "  supporters,"  foul  hands  making  capital  of 
fair  duties.  And  convenient  it  is  for  such  as  these  to 
confuse  the  distinction  —  one  ought  to  say,  contrast 
—  between  cause  and  self.  Personal  enemies  readily  be- 
come "  plotters  against  our  house,"  "  traducers  of  our 

*  "An  immigrant  in  Pennsylvania  set  himself  up  in  the  banking  busi- 
ness, but  it  was  some  time  before  he  got  the  money  of  his  countrymen  for 
safe  keeping.  He  secured  their  confidence  by  buying  a  large  safe,  which 
he  placed  in  his  store,  near  the  front  window,  so  that  the  passers-by 
could  see  it.  The  money  soon  began  to  pour  in,  not  because  he  was  an 
honest  man,  but  because  he  had  a  big  safe  in  which  to  keep  it."  Roberts, 
New  Immigration,  181. 


CONFUSING  THE  ATTENTION  177 

fair  city,"  or  "  blasphemers  of  our  God."  Individual 
orders  are  merely  the  rules  of  the  house,  the  demands  of 
patriotism,  the  will  of  the  people,  perhaps,  the  solemn 
mandates  of  Jehovah  plainly  expressed  in  the  Scriptures. 
To  such  lofty  motives  as  home,  loyalty,  patriotism,  and 
worship,  men's  minds  are  always  attuned,  and  hence 
opportunity  is  never  lacking  this  wearer  of  the  mask. 

Too  great  eagerness  to  push  oneself  forward  implies 
selfishness  and  brings  reproof.  Hence  a  leader  places 
himself  "  in  the  hands  of  his  friends."  In  a  seemingly 
receptive  manner  merely,  he  awaits  the  call  of  duty.  "  I 
am  no  politician,"  were  the  often-expressed  words  of 
Andrew  Jackson.  But  he  had  William  B.  Lewis  for  a 
friend,  Lewis,  the  great  father  of  the  wire-pullers,  skilled 
in  the  art  of  starting  movements  apparently  spontaneous, 
at  a  distance,  and  in  a  quarter  from  which  they  win  pres- 
tige and  popularity;  skilled  also  in  planning  the  stage 
setting,  adjusting  the  r61es,  giving  cues,  and  drilling 
each  player  faithfully  in  his  part;  wonderfully  patient 
and  pliant,  yet  energetic  in  moving  the  drama  toward 
the  denouement  when  the  chief  actor  comes  to  the  foot- 
lights and  bows  to  the  will  of  the  people.^  Worthy  com- 
patriots all  of  the  Australian  boomerang  thrower! 

Defeat  implies  weakness.  But  shall  followers  be 
permitted  to  gaze  long  upon  evidences  of  disaster  ?  The 
defeated  politician  immediately  after  the  votes  are 
counted  flays  ringster  control,  arraigns  the  sordid 
interests,  vows  eternal  devotion  to  the  people,  all  with 
delightful  inconsistency.  The  priest  points  proudly  to 
the  armor  of  those  whose  lives  by  power  of  prayer  were 
saved  from  shipwreck.  Only  a  cynic  raises  the  query, 
Where  is  the  armor  of  those  who  prayed  and  yet  were 
drowned  ?  Napoleon  entranced  the  French  with  visions 
of  military  glory;  mothers  bereft  of  their  soldier  sons 
^  Sumner,  Andrew  Jackson,  77-78. 

N 


178  ILLUSION 

mourned  within  the  home  as  was  proper,  while  in  public 
places  were  displayed  the  captured  standards  of  Austria 
or  of  Prussia  —  "  Vive  la  France  !  Vive  Temper eur !  " 
The  Roman  emperors  to  offset  each  fresh  disaster  set 
up  new  grandeurs  toward  which  they  bade  the  populace 
look.i 

When  success  is  doubtful  or  himself  distasteful,  it  is 
not  well  that  one  should  sit  upon  the  throne ;  a  puppet 
may  play  the  part.  A  slip,  a  reverse,  the  puppet  only 
is  sacrificed.  Again,  should  results  be  ample,  there  is 
much  said  of  "  solid  achievements. '^  If  results  be 
lacking,  efforts  are  emphasized ;  "  the  noblest  duty  is 
to  strive."  And  if  both  are  wanting,  he  is  still  "  such  a 
good  man." 

During  schoolboy  days,  the  trickster  suggests,  "  See 
that  little  bird !  "  —  upon  which  we  lose  an  apple,  a 
marble,  or  some  such  thing.  With  the  passing  of  boy- 
hood, this  crude  device  gives  way  to  cleverest  manipu- 
lation, yet  now,  as  then,  efficacy  adheres  in  that  idea 
interesting  enough  to  dominate  consciousness. 

2.  Errors  Regarding  Causation.  —  It  does  not  suffice 
merely  to  distract  attention;  illusion  also  shapes  the 
interpretation  of  what  is  seen.  It  deftly  combats  the 
evidence  of  one's  senses,  twists  far  out  of  line  the  normal 
sequences  of  thought,  and  causes  men  to  look  askance 

*  "After  great  fires  and  desolating  wars,"  says  Dill,  "the  first  thought 
of  the  most  frugal  or  the  most  lavish  prince  was  to  restore  in  greater 
grandeur  what  had  been  destroyed.  After  the  great  conflagration  of 
64  A.D.,  which  laid  in  ashes  ten  out  of  the  fourteen  regions  of  Rome,  Nero 
immediately  set  to  work  to  rebuild  the  city  in  a  more  orderly  fashion, 
with  broader  streets  and  open  spaces.  Vespasian,  on  his  accession, 
found  the  treasury  loaded  with  a  debt  of  more  than  a  billion  and  a  half 
dollars.  Yet  the  frugal  emperor  did  not  hesitate  to  begin  at  once  the 
restoration  of  the  Capitol,  and  all  the  other  ruins  left  by  the  great  struggle 
of  69  A.D.  from  which  his  dynasty  arose.  .  .  .  Titus  completed  the 
Colosseum,  and  erected  the  famous  baths.  Domitian  once  more  re- 
stored the  Capitol  and  added  many  new  buildings."  Roman  Society 
from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  227,  cited  by  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  34. 


THE  BEFUDDLEMENT  OF  REASON         179 

at  simplicity  itself.  In  this  befuddlement  of  reason 
much  is  accomplished  by  certain  convenient  theories  of 
causation. 

Nothing  is  more  clear  than  that  increased  danger 
swells  the  chances  of  death.  Mohammed  theorized  to 
the  contrary;  every  event,  according  to  the  Koran, 
was  predestined  from  eternity  and  could  in  no  wise  be 
avoided.  No  man  could  die  until  his  alotted  hour  was 
at  hand  and  die  then  he  must,  whether  a  sneaking  coward 
at  home  or  amid  the  storm  of  battle  a  valiant  defender 
of  the  faith.  Islamism  forgot  meekness  and  philan- 
thropy, and  became  a  religion  of  violence  and  the  sword. 
Common  sense  was  routed  by  predestination. 

Politics,  crises,  and  climate  are  not  perhaps  one  and 
the  same  thing.  Yet  every  four  years  we  learn  that 
hard  times,  closed  factories,  bankruptcy,  and  soup  kitch- 
ens are  inevitable  with  Democrats  in  power;  that, 
contrariwise,  the  winds  are  balmy,  the  crops  good,  the 
sun  shining  on  a  happy  land  and  prosperous  people  when 
a  Republican  sits  in  the  White  House.  'Tis  a  witching 
argument  —  with  perhaps  a  bit  of  truth  in  it. 

The  danger  argument  is  another  one  artfully  employed. 
The  insurance  solicitor  convinces  the  prospect  that  he  is 
not  long  for  this  world,  and  then  gets  a  doctor's  cer- 
tificate to  prove  to  the  company  that  he  is.  "  Friends 
and  Fellow-citizens,"  so  ran  the  presidential  candi- 
date's last  reminder  to  the  voters,  "  we  stand  face  to 
face  with  a  great  decision,  a  decision  which  will  affect 
the  whole  course  of  our  National  life  and  our  individual 
fortimes  throughout  the  next  generation.  It  cannot 
be  postponed."  Says  the  promoter,  "  This  is  your  last 
chance  " ;  and  he  solemnly  quotes  a  certain  verse  from 
Shakespeare. 

Division  of  labor  involves  specialization,  with  supe- 
riority possible  only  within  a  restricted  field.     But,  as 


i8o  ILLUSION 

has  been  pointed  out,  ascendancy  is  seldom  confined  to 
this  restricted  field  but  envelops  the  leader  as  a  whole. 
We  admire  not  merely  Emerson's  thought,  but  his  style, 
his  face,  his  house ;  in  fact,  everything  connected  with 
him  is  ennobled.  In  this  tendency  lurks  another  ele- 
ment of  illusion.  The  successful  warrior  is  elevated  to 
the  presidency;  the  eminent  chemist  creates  a  pro- 
found impression  by  his  religious  views ;  the  words  of  a 
Croesus  are  final  concerning  art  treasures  and  church 
service;  the  moral  enthusiast  holds  the  masses  spell- 
bound by  his  clear  division  of  mankind  into  plutocrats 
and  plain  people  or  by  his  deep-chested  opinion  on  our 
currency  laws. 

The  primitive  medicine  man  readily  threw  the  levers 
of  causation.  He  made  rain  to  fall,  detected  plots, 
appeased  evil  spirits,  and  easily  interpreted  both  his 
success  and  his  failure.  And  the  course  of  his  descend- 
ants is  not  yet  run. 

5.  The  Distortion  of  Values.  —  Illusion  penetrates 
even  deeper  into  the  mental  Uf e ;  it  shapes  the  symbols 
with  which  the  mind  has  to  deal.  These  S3mibols  in  their 
normal  condition  represent  the  winnowings  of  the  ages, 
the  economic,  juridical,  political,  aesthetic,  religious, 
scientific  and  ethical  valuations  possessed  of  which  and 
obedient  to  which  the  favored  groups  have  triumphed 
in  the  long  struggle  for  existence,  the  standards  through 
which  all  human  experience  continues  to  be  measured, 
the  coin,  so  to  speak,  by  which  society's  business  is 
transacted.  Havoc  is  visited  upon  these  values,  when 
the  solicitor  emphasizes  insurance ;  the  physician,  health ; 
the  minister,  salvation ;  the  old  men,  conservation ;  the 
yoimg  men,  progress;  the  politician,  himself  and  his 
mission.  The  special  pleader  in  every  case  would  distort 
current  values,  and  thereupon  play  the  game  with  leaded 
dice. 


DEMAGOGUES  i8i 

It  may  perchance  be  that  the  popular  side  is  not  in- 
variably the  right.  But  vox  poptdi,  vox  dei,  demagogues 
and  other  self-seekers  pose  as  ministering  angels  obeying 
the  divine  voice.  In  this  case  the  flattered  divinities 
usually  are  mere  parrots,  and  plucked  birds  at  that.  A 
like  error  persists  in  the  goodness  view,  the  mischievous 
fallacy  that  a  "  good  "  man  can  do  no  evil.  The  igno- 
rant alderman  voting  on  a  ninety-nine  year  franchise, 
the  old  family  physician  dictating  sanitary  regulations 
for  the  slimis,  the  tax  collector  with  hopelessly  muddled 
books,  the  train  dispatcher  erratic  though  a  member  of 
the  church  choir,  these  may  perpetuate  their  iniquity 
long  after  the  highwayman  and  gangster  have  been 
jailed.  They  meant  well !  So  does  the  ward  politician, 
the  "  boss  "  denounced  as  mercenary,  immoral,  a  vulture, 
a  leech,  but  who  in  fact  moves  among  his  constituents  as 
a  kindly  friend,  getting  jobs  for  the  imemployed,  provid- 
ing bail,  shoes,  turkeys  at  Thanksgiving  and  baskets  at 
Christmas,  attending  weddings  and  church  bazaars 
where  his  purse  is  always  open  and  the  question  of 
tainted  money  is  never  raised.  A  good  man  indeed, 
popular,  charming  in  his  smile  and  his  benevolences 
—  but  we  pay  his  bills. 

Obedience  has  a  true  value,  yet  skillfully  manipulated 
it  means  to  do  as  one  is  told.  "It  is  a  real  pleasure  for 
me  to  greet  so  many  of  my  Italian  friends,"  a  recent 
gubernatorial  candidate  assured  his  audience;  then  the 
slantwise  suggestion,  "  I  know  they  are  my  friends, 
because  they  always  vote  for  me  on  Election  Day,  and 
that  is  the  real  test  of  their  confidence."  Similarly  says 
the  Talmud,  "  He  who  humiliates  himself  will  be  lifted 
up;  he  who  raises  himself  will  be  humiliated."  The 
soul  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  in  the  Book  of  the  Dead 
pleads,  "  I  am  not  swollen  with  pride."  In  the  Koran 
one  is  admonished,  "  (k>d  loves  not  him  who  is  proud 


i82  ILLUSION 

and  boastful."  Such  tools,  carefully  forged,  embedded 
in  holy  writ,  deceivers  itch  to  use ;  "  Keep  an  ear  open 
for  God's  commands  "  too  often  means  "  Listen  to  me." 

The  evidence  of  the  senses  fails  us  in  the  presence  of 
the  unseen ;  accordingly,  around  its  mysteries,  its  hopes 
and  fears,  distortion  reaches  the  climax.  Under  its  touch 
the  future  is  not  gray  but  white  or  black,  a  thing  of  rap- 
ture or  terror.  "  A  drop  of  blood  shed  in  the  cause  of 
God,"  says  Mohammed,  "  is  of  more  avail  than  two 
months  of  fasting  and  prayer;  whoso  falls  in  battle, 
all  his  sins  are  forgiven;  at  the  day  of  judgment  his 
wounds  shall  be  resplendent  as  vermilion  and  odoriferous 
as  musk."  And,  "  Thank  God,"  said  a  pioneer  preacher,^ 
"  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  you  miserable  and 
unrepentant  sinners  will  be  chained  down  to  Hell's 
brazen  floor,  and  the  devil  with  his  three-pronged  har- 
poon will  pierce  your  reeking  hearts,  and  pile  upon  you 
the  red  hot  cinders  of  black  damnation  as  high  as  the 
pyramids  of  Egypt,  and  fry  the  pride  out  of  your  hearts 
to  grease  the  gudgeons  of  the  ragwheels  of  Hell."  The 
contrast  between  these  two  selections  is  noticeable. 
Both  brought  results. 

The  present,  so  the  prosaic  economist  tells  us,  dis- 
counts the  future.  But  a  lively  image  hath  its  own 
effect,  and  the  future  is  still  afar  off. 


THE  THEORY  OF  ILLUSION 

How  account  for  the  widely  extended  scope  of  illusion 
and  its  tremendous  influence?  In  the  source  of  the 
mind's  materials  is  revealed  one  explanation.  Accord- 
ing to  the  general  law  of  perception,  of  that  which  domi- 
nates consciousness,  part  has  come  through  the  senses 

1  Maxwell,  History  of  Randolph  County,  W.  Va.,  315. 


ILLUSION  EXPLAINED  183 

while  another  part,  possibly  the  larger,  is  self -supplied.^  In 
this  self-supplied  mental  store  lie  fruitful  causes  of  illusion. 

For  illusion  is  attractive.  It  appeals.  The  facts  may 
indicate  stony  roads  and  hot  sun  and  the  parched  tongue ; 
but  illusion  paints  the  lotus  tree,  the  cool  spring,  the 
rewards,  and  if  at  first  its  picture  is  not  pleasing,  it  may 
readily  be  made  so.  Consciousness  finds  such  images 
lively,  entertaining,  satisfying.  And  the  mind  deals 
only  with  the  materials  it  possesses. 

Now,  contrary  to  what  may  appear  at  first  to  be  true, 
belief  is  natural  and  thoroughgoing,  while  skepticism  is 
a  thin  veneer  laid  on  in  fear  and  trembling.  The  primi- 
tive tendency,  from  which  we  are  all  only  more  or  less 
removed,  is  to  believe  everything  conceived;  in  fact, 
doubt  is  the  really  difficult  mental  state.  Says  James :  ^ 
"  The  greatest  proof  that  a  man  is  sui  compos  is  his 
ability  to  suspend  belief  in  presence  of  an  emotionally 
exciting  idea.  To  give  this  power  is  the  highest  result 
of  education.  In  imtutored  minds  it  does  not  exist. 
Every  exciting  thought  in  the  natural  man  carries  credence 
with  it.  .  .  .  Whichever  represented  objects  give  us 
sensations,  especially  interesting  ones,  or  incite  our  motor 
impulses,  or  arouse  our  hate,  desire,  or  fear,  are  real 
enough  for  us.  Our  requirements  in  the  way  of  reality 
terminate  in  our  acts  and  emotions,  our  own  pleasures 
and  pains.  These  are  the  ultimate  fixities  from  which 
the  whole  chain  of  our  belief  depends.''  Creduhty,  even 
after  many  painful  experiences,  continues  to  rule  whole 
segments  of  the  mental  life. 

Error  follows  hard  upon  credulity.  It  could  scarce 
be  otherwise,  since  truth  is  reached  only  by  fitting 
materials  harmoniously  together,  a  process  of  synthesis 
in  which  elements  are  arranged  in  proper  sequence. 
The  chances  for  a  misfit  are  numberless.     The  savage 

*  James,  Pn».  0/ P^y.,  II,  103.  ^Ihid.,  308-311  passim. 


i84  ILLUSION 

wonder  worker  notes  that  after  he  tramped  around  a 
certain  stake,  with  many  passes  of  a  wand  and  continu- 
ous mutterings,  a  rain  fell.  He  connects  these  two  sets 
of  phenomena.  When  a  rain  is  again  desired,  he  sets 
into  operation  the  "  causes,"  and  after  a  time  behold, 
the  shower  falls.  His  magic  has  worked.  The  error 
here  results  from  his  having  connected  two  things  in 
reality  unrelated,  a  misfit  in  thought  mechanism.  And 
this  is  precisely  what  whole  masses  of  men  have  done  and 
are  doing  all  the  time.  Error  flourishes.  In  greater  or 
less  degree  it  claims  every  person  in  even  the  most 
enlightened  countries,  perpetuates  superstitions,  false 
conceits,  prejudices,  makes  intellectual  cowards  of  us 
all.  And  yet  from  such  minds,  however  error  laden  at 
times  they  be,  comes  the  guidance  that  we  have. 

The  only  real  antidote  to  error  is  truth.  Now  truth 
is  not  given  to  men  in  their  sleep,  but,  even  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  must  be  won  through  much 
patient  toil  and  disinterested  devotion.  Its  progress, 
consequently,  is  subject  to  human  control.  Those  whose 
case  rests  upon  error  have  well  recognized  this,  and 
under  their  direction  have  multiplied  the  most  ingenious 
methods  of  opposition. 

Ceremonialism  is  one  of  these.  It  deftly  forestalls 
complete  knowledge  by  curbing  overfamiliarity  and 
keeping  others  at  a  distance.^    "  Every  one  sees  what 

*  Very  adroitly  the  savage  wonder  worker  shrouds  himself  in  mystery. 
Says  Ellis ;  "Until  recently  his  face  might  not  be  seen,  even  by  his  own 
subjects,  and  if  circumstances  obliged  him  to  communicate  with  them, 
he  did  so  through  a  screen  which  concealed  him  from  view.  Now,  al- 
though his  face  may  be  seen,  it  is  usual  to  conceal  his  body;  and  at 
audiences  a  cloth  is  held  before  him  so  as  to  hide  him  from  his  neck 
downwards,  and  is  raised  so  as  to  cover  him  altogether  whenever  he 
coughs,  sneezes,  expectorates,  or  takes  snuff.  The  face  is  partially 
concealed  by  the  conical  cap  with  hangmg  strings  of  beads.  It  is  death 
for  anyone,  except  members  of  the  court,  to  sit  or  stand  behind  the 
Awnjale."    Op.  cit.,  70.     Cf.  Ross,  Soc.  Con.,  240. 


TRUTH  AND  ERROR  185 

you  appear  to  be,"  remarked  Machiavelli,  "  few  really 
know  who  you  are."  "  Among  a  man's  peers,"  says  Ba- 
con, "  a  man  shall  be  sure  of  familiarity ;  and  therefore 
it  is  good  a  little  to  keep  state."  This  keeping  state 
ranges  from  mere  impressive  personal  demeanor  to  the 
elaborateness  of  the  Ancient  Regime.  No  man  is  said 
to  be  a  hero  to  his  valet,  but  most  followers  by  a  wide 
margin  are  denied  such  intimacy. 

Even  those  who  come  to  know  their  chief  best  may 
increase,  rather  than  diminish,  the  illusion.  A  wide 
divergence,  as  was  pointed  out  in  connection  with  the 
goodness  fallacy,  often  exists  between  standards  set  by 
the  individual  in  private  life  and  those  he  applies  to  his 
public  acts.  The  black-frocked  man  kindly  patting  the 
Httle  girls'  heads  in  Sabbath  school  perchance  was  yes- 
terday a  secret  rebater  and  to-morrow  will  water  stock. 
The  grafting  district  leader,  pictured  in  the  cartoons  as 
having  horns,  is  found  upon  acquaintance  to  be  mild 
mannered,  of  fond  heart  and  friendly  purse.  Their 
crimes  are  social,  not  personal ;  it  is  crookedness  on  the 
large.  Yet  their  friends  are  willing,  even  zealous,  bearers 
of  colored  bulletins. 

A  very  workable  opposition  to  truth  is  the  emphasis 
upon  the  danger  encountered.  The  old  paths  indeed 
are  pleasant.  Over  them  have  our  ancestors  walked; 
with  every  turn  and  roadside  spring,  habit  has  long  ac- 
quainted us ;  and  have  not  lusty  runners  at  times  for- 
saken its  well-worn  surface  only  to  return  defeated  and, 
as  they  trudge  in  our  midst  once  more,  tormented  by 
self -alienation  ?  At  some  time  in  his  career,  due,  perhaps, 
to  misfortune,  learning  ill  wrought  out,  or  fatigue,  every 
man  under  stress  is  as  tinder  to  the  council  emanating 
from  many  a  crafty  breast,  "  Knowledge  is  merely  a 
proud  conceit,  quite  useless.  Believe.  Trouble  not 
thyself,  leave  all  to  me." 


i86  ILLUSION 

This  suggestion,  if  need  be,  is  followed  by  active  sup- 
pression. The  discoverers  of  truth  have  been  hounded, 
thrown  into  prison,  as  was  Galileo ;  vehemently  abused, 
as  was  Darwin ;  prevented  from  publishing  his  writings, 
as  was  Descartes  in  his  Traite  de  Monde;  their  works 
prohibited  even  though  published,  as  is  done  by  the 
papal  Index  Lihrorum,  which  catalogues  most  of  our  great 
or  epoch-making  books ;  worst  of  all,  themselves,  thinkers 
untold,  —  and  necessarily  unknown  too,  —  deterred  from 
investigation  which  would  have  brought  us  long  since 
to  the  plane  toward  which  we  now  toil.  A  vast  sacri- 
fice that  error  might  persist ! 

Nevertheless,  bigotry  and  insincerity  are  practically 
everywhere  considered  a  scar  in  character.  The  double- 
dealer  tends  to  radiate  doubt,  distrust ;  surely  no  rally- 
ing standard.  Some  additional  element  evidently  must 
enter  in  to  explain  why  illusion  has  long  played  a  part 
on  the  checkered  stage  of  actuality,  and  its  curtain  is 
not  yet  rung  down.  This  element  is  found  in  its  close 
relation  with  belief.  The  shrewd  plotter,  the  knave  or 
strike  breaker  or  street  agitator,  the  promulgator  of 
mining  scheme  or  fantastic  futures,  detached  at  first,  a 
mere  manipulator,  in  the  end  embraces  the  same  lively 
image  that  enticed  followers.  "  We  must  only  in  cold 
blood  act  as  if  the  thing  in  question  were  real/'  says  James, 
"  and  keep  acting  as  if  it  were  real,  and  it  will  infallibly 
end  by  growing  into  such  a  connection  with  our  life  that 
it  will  become  real.''  Illusion  thus  comes  to  envelop 
leader  as  well  as  followers ;  he,  too,  is  more  or  less  duped. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Is  there  more  pleasure  in  realization  than  in  anticipation? 

2.  Name  some  current  superstitions.  May  one  be  influenced 
by  beliefs  which,  if  criticized,  he  openly  repudiates? 

3.  Is  any  one  consistently  sober  and  rational? 


EXERCISES  AND   READINGS  187 

4.  Which  is  more  readily  taken  by  phrases  and  formulse, 
philosophic  and  theological  speculations,  —  the  Latin  or  the 
Teuton?    Urban  dweller  or  rural  dweller? 

5.  Compare  in  openness  of  countenance  primary  and  high 
school  pupils.     Agricultural  and  law  school  students. 

6.  By  what  methods  do  men  seek  to  make  themselves  more 
impressive? 

7.  What  elements  of  illusion  in  the  censorship  of  war  news? 

READINGS 

Roosevelt,  Autobiography,  Ch.  Ill  {Outlook,  April  26,  1912,917- 

941). 
Machiavelli,  The  Prince,  Chs.  XV-XIX. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Discipline 

"I  doubt  much  whether  the  power  of  particular  persons  over 
their  neighbors  has  ever  in  any  age  of  the  world  been  so  well 
defined  and  so  easily  and  safely  exerted  as  it  is  at  present." 

—  J.  F.  Stephen. 

In  the  binding  of  many  to  the  will  of  one,  no  method 
historically  has  been  more  employed  than  discipline. 
A  double-lashed  whip,  its  smart  has  followed  hard  upon 
sins  both  of  commission  and  omission.  And  though 
closet  philosophers  say  much  of  moral  suasion,  in  the 
stern  realm  of  fact  there  is  still  need  for  the  iron  grip 
inside  the  velvet  glove. 

THE  BASES  OF  AUTHORITY 

The  executive  usually  finds  that  handling  discipline 
is  much  like  playing  with  fi.re;  the  method  possesses 
efficacy  but  is  dangerous.  Being  guided  by  the  proper 
point  of  view  will  largely  obviate  this  danger  and  in- 
crease the  control ;  and  this  point  of  view,  in  turn,  is 
best  gained  through  considering,  in  connection  with 
each  case  as  it  arises,  the  bases  of  authority. 

The  most  general  statement  perhaps  is  that  obedience 
varies  directly  according  to  the  degree  of  positive  self- 
feeling  of  leader  in  relation  to  the  negative  self -feeling  of 
follower.  In  the  chapters  on  personality,  imitation, 
and  suggestion,  the  significance  of  prestige  was  pointed 


AUTHORITY  PRESTIGE  189 

out.  In  a  very  real  sense,  and  related  to  these  others, 
we  may  speak  of  authority  prestige. 

Napoleon  possessed  it.  An  obscure  general,  —  in  the 
opinion  of  his  seasoned  staff  officers  a  mere  little  upstart 
dispatched  them  from  Paris, — upon  taking  command  of 
the  army  in  Italy  he  appeared  at  headquarters  girt  with 
his  sword,  explained  the  measures  he  had  taken,  gave 
his  orders,*dismissed  the  staff ;  by  his  mere  presence  he 
vanquished  the  rough  generals,  one  of  whom,  Augereau, 
admitted  outside  that  this  little  devil  of  a  general  had 
inspired  him  with  awe. 

John  Wesley  "  could  overawe  a  mob  with  the  still 
and  searching  look  of  his  eye.  Even  his  friends  some- 
times stood  in  a  certain  awe  of  him,  and  seldom  ven- 
tured to  oppose  his  wishes."  Of  Pamell  it  is  said,  "  He 
would  give  a  stern  straight  look  from  those  strange  eyes 
of  his,  and  I  have  seen  even  bold  men  shrivel  under  the 
gaze." 

Thus  does  natural  prestige  secure  obedience,  yet 
prestige  in  all  its  forms  works  toward  the  same  end.^ 
Personality,  impressive  demeanor,  exalted  position,  a 
series  of  successes,  close  touch  with  the  unseen,  the 
splendors  of  a  coronation  or  a  Delhi  Durbar,  each 
enables  him  who  commands  to  cast  a  certain  spell  over 
those  who  obey.  In  combination  their  power  is  well- 
nigh  invincible. 

This,  however,  is  but  one  phase  of  the  matter.    With 

*A  curious  instance  is  the  native  "captain"  appointed  in  each  dis- 
trict of  Guiana  by  the  colonial  government.  "From  that  day,"  says 
Thurm,  "wherever  he  goes,  he  carries  with  him  his  certificate,  a  most 
potent  and  mysterious  document  to  the  Indians,  and  a  huge  staff  of  letter- 
wood,  as  signs  of  authority.  His  power  is  strangely  real,  considering 
that  to  enforce  it  he  has  to  depend  but  on  his  own  influence,  on  a  sheet 
of  paper,  and  a  stick  such  as  every  Indian  might  cut  for  himself.  The 
document  is  far  the  most  dreaded  of  his  insignia.  His  orders  to  any 
Indians  of  his  district  are  almost  unhesitatingly  obeyed."  Among  the 
Indians  of  Guiana,  212. 


ipo  DISCIPLINE 

the  evolving  of  leader  prestige,  there  has  gone  on  in 
followers'  minds  a  development  of  their  own  negative 
self-feeling.  The  two  aspects  are  complementary. 
This  tendency  in  followers  to  admit  inferiority  is  imi- 
versal.  It  appears  to  be  closely  correlated  with  the 
gregarious  instinct  and  perhaps  is  definitely  impressed 
during  the  period  of  tutelage  imder  parents;  at  least 
it  is  a  necessary  concomitant  to  collective  effort.^ 

In  consequence,  large  numbers  of  men,  a  considerable 
majority  perhaps,  find  satisfaction  in  humility,  lack  of 
responsibility,  and  obedience.  The  native  Australians, 
because  he  did  not  use  his  gun  against  them,  came  to 
despise  Lumholtz  as  a  small  white  man.  The  rich 
landlord,  collecting  his  rents  with  severity.  Miss  Addams 
found,  was  nevertheless  greatly  admired  by  the  slum 
dwellers,  though  the  poor  landlord,  he  who  pitied  and 
spared,  was  treated  with  a  certain  lack  of  respect.  The 
President  during  visitors'  days  hears  over  and  over 
again  the  fervent  "  God  bless  you !  "  Says  Wilson, 
"  Up  from  the  common  soil,  up  from  the  quiet  heart  of 
the  people,  rise  the  streams  of  hope  and  eulogy." 

This  is  no  enlightened  selfishness,  but  devotion,  willing 
service  that  continues  though  sorely  tried.  The  Ancient 
Regime  at  Versailles  ground  the  masses  into  misery, 
yet  the  inhabitants  of  town  after  town  willingly  and 
joyfully  raised  statues  and  various  monuments  in  honor 
of  Louis  XIV  and  his  victories,  and  not  all  the  infamies 
of  Louis  XV  could  shake  the  devotion  of  the  masses 
to  his  welfare.  Michelet  relates,  "  When  it  was  known 
in  Paris  that  Louis  XV,  who  had  left  for  the  army,  was 
detained  ill  at  Metz,  it  was  night.  People  got  up  and 
ran  tumultuously  hither  and  thither  without  knowing 
where  they  were  going;  the  churches  were  opened  in 
the  middle  of  the  night  .  .  .  people  assembled  at  every 

*  Cf.  101-103. 


OPEN  AND   CLOSED   RESOURCES  191 

cross-road,  jostling  and  questioning  one  another  without 
knowing  what  they  were  after.  In  several  churches,  the 
priest  who  was  reciting  the  prayer  for  the  king's  health 
was  stopped  by  his  tears,  and  the  people  replied  by 
sobs  and  cries.  The  courier  who  brought  the  news  of 
his  convalescence  was  embraced  and  almost  stifled; 
people  kissed  his  horse,  and  led  him  in  triumph.  Every 
street  resounded  with  a  cry  of  joy : '  The  king  is  healed ! ' "  ^ 
And  this  was  for  Louis  XV ! 

The  difference  between  positive  self-feeling  in  leader 
and  negative  self-feeling  in  follower  lies  at  the  heart  of 
authority.  The  power  does  not  consist  in  things,  but 
is  spiritual,  intangible.  "  Mutiny  Acts,"  says  George 
Bernard  Shaw,  "  are  needed  only  by  officers  who  com- 
mand without  authority.     Divine  right  needs  no  whip." 

Turning  now  to  the  second  general  statement  in  general 
related  to  the  first,  we  may  say,  that  disciplinary  power 
varies  indirectly  with  the  degree  of  independence  of  the 
subject.  Here  we  have  at  bottom  the  question  of  open 
or  closed  resources,  a  matter  of  vast  historical  signifi- 
cance. When  resources  are  open,  by  his  own  effort 
at  first  hand,  a  man  may  subsist.  To  cause  him  to  for- 
sake these  opportimities  and  labor  for  a  master  requires 
slavery,  the  personal  possession  of  one  by  another.  No 
other  plan  suffices.  For  if  every  man  in  his  own  right 
had  access  to  resources,  were  he  not  possessed  each 
would  serve  his  own  interests. 

But  when  resources  are  closed,  escape  is  cut  off. 
Industrially,  the  capitahst  has  the  funds,  the  landlord 
has  the  lands.  The  compulsion  which  once  resided  in 
gang  driver  and  bloodhounds  now  adheres  in  the  social 
system.  Accordingly,  followers  are  no  longer  possessed 
nor  bound  in  body,  simply  because  such  precautions  are 
needless.  To  most  men  the  boasted  independence  often 
^  Le  Bon,  Psychology  of  Revolution,  146. 


192  DISCIPLINE 

heard  mentioned,  if  analyzed,  usually  means  freedom  to 
starve.  The  executive  may  therefore  rest  secure;  the 
unruly  are  dashed  to  their  own  destruction,  the  others, 
tamed  into  faithfulness,  are  crowded  toward  him.^ 

Obedience  getters,  instead  of  aiming  at  the  recalci- 
trant directly,  have  often  adroitly  set  about  closing  his 
resources.  The  only  road  to  royal  favor  under  Louis 
XIV  was  attendance  at  Versailles.  Says  Taine :  ^ 
"  To  be  present  was  an  obligation ;  it  might  be  called  a 
continuation  of  ancient  feudal  homage;  the  staff  of 
nobles  is  maintained  as  the  retinue  of  its  bom  general. 
In  the  language  of  the  day,  it  is  called  *  paying  one's 
duty  to  the  king.'  Absence,  in  the  sovereign's  eyes, 
would  be  a  sign  of  independence  as  well  as  indifference, 
while  submission  as  well  as  assiduity  is  his  due.  The 
eyes  of  Louis  XIV  go  their  rounds  at  every  moment, 
'  on  arising  or  retiring,  on  passing  into  his  apartments, 
in  his  gardens,  .  .  .  nobody  escapes,  even  those  who 
hoped  they  were  not  seen ;  it  was  a  demerit  with  some, 
and  the  most  distinguished,  not  to  make  the  court  their 
ordinary  sojourn,  to  others  to  come  to  it  but  seldom, 
and  certain  disgrace  to  those  who  never,  or  nearly  never, 
came.'  Henceforth,  the  main  thing,  for  the  first  per- 
sonages in  the  kingdom,  men  and  women,  ecclesiastics 
and  laymen,  the  grand  affair,  the  first  duty  in  life,  the 
true  occupation,  is  to  be  at  all  hours  and  in  every  place 

1  "When  in  Berwick,  Pa.,  conversing  with  the  employment  agent, 
we  saw  foreigners  waiting  around  that  office  all  day.  We  expressed  sur- 
prise at  seeing  them  there  hour  after  hour,  morning  and  afternoon, 
but  the  employment  agent  said:  'That's  the  way  the  foreigner  does; 
tell  him  you  don't  want  him  in  the  morning,  yet  he'll  hang  around  all 
day  and  show  himself.  An  American  will  come  to  the  window  in  the 
morning  and,  if  refused  work,  he  goes  away  immediately  and  you  don't 
see  him  again  until  the  following  morning,  when  he  does  the  same  thing.* 
During  the  winter  1907-1908  troops  of  foreigners  hung  around  industrial 
plants,  waiting  the  call  of  the  employer ;  no  matter  what  hour  he  called, 
they  were  there  to  answer."    Roberts,  New  Immigration,  293. 

'  The  Ancient  Regime,  100-102  passim. 


SECURING  OBEDIENCE  193 

under  the  king's  eye,  within  reach  of  his  voice  and  his 
glance." 

Said  La  Bruyere,  "  Whoever  considers  that  the  king's 
countenance  is  the  courtier's  supreme  felicity,  that  he 
passes  his  life  looking  on  it  and  within  sight  of  it,  will 
comprehend  to  some  extent  how  to  see  God,  constitutes 
the  glory  and  happiness  of  the  saints."  Declared  Due 
de  RicheHeu,  "  I  would  rather  die  than  pass  two  months 
without  seeing  him." 

George  III,  similarly  surrounding  himself  with  peers 
yearning  for  lieutenancies  or  regiments,  for  stars  or 
strawberry  leaves;  with  prelates  and  numberless  servi- 
tors whose  convictions  were  unequal  to  their  appetites, 
had  merely  to  whisper  his  august  disapprobation  — 
apparently  stiff  necks  were  suddenly  flaccid  and  joints 
became  as  water. 

Cortes  destroyed  the  ships  upon  which  his  soldiers 
might  retreat  from  Mexico,  a  very  literal  means  of 
closing  resources ;  Bismarck  guided  authority  into  his 
own  hands  by  ruling  that  no  subordinate  should  com- 
municate with  the  king  except  through  himself ;  Robes- 
pierre so  played  the  shadow  of  the  guillotine  upon  his 
colleagues  on  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  that  one 
glance  from  the  master  brought  pallor  and  despair.  It 
is  easy  to  discipline,  as  these  men  have  shown,  when 
one  possesses  the  strangle  hold. 

In  a  more  real  sense,  however,  control  is  not  exer- 
cised over  the  corporeal  self  or  material  fortunes  so  much 
as  over  the  social  self.  Ever  comes  the  question.  How 
sit  we  in  the  estimation  of  our  fellows?  Savages  live 
in  superstitious  dread  of  the  person  who  possesses  their 
names;  but  so  are  civilized  men  sensitive  to  what  is 
done  to  their  fair  name,  i.e.  the  reflection  of  themselves 
in  the  minds  of  others.  Ridicule,  disdain,  contempt, 
exposure,  all  threaten  to  eclipse  the  social  image. 


194  DISCIPLINE 

But  the  most  subtle  form  of  closed  resources  hinges 
upon  faith  in  the  unseen.  A  priestly  class  claims  to 
hold  the  keys  of  heaven  and  hell,  and  all  avenues  thereto. 
It  alone  can  define  orthodoxy,  provide  forms  of  worship, 
administer  sacraments,  offer  prayer  for  departed  souls, 
and  procure  forgiveness  of  sins,  a  series  of  opportuni- 
ties for  control  and  exploitation  which  have  been 
employed  with  adroitness  for  more  than  a  thousand 
years. 

These  two  bases  of  authority,  the  degrees  of  self-feeling 
and  independence  held  by  executive  and  subordinate  in 
relation  to  each  other,  may  seem  far  removed  from  shop 
or  office  friction.  In  reality  each  case  of  control  rests 
upon  these  principles,  and  no  discipline  is  effective  not 
in  accord  with  them.  To  apply  them,  however,  one 
may  well  consider  certain  more  specific  policies  as  per 
the  following  discussion. 

EFFECTIVENESS  IN  DISCIPLINE 

Among  subordinates  are  always  those  insistent  upon 
freedom,  and  more  or  less  restive  under  restraint,  these 
often  being,  too,  it  may  be  added,  the  most  valuable 
members  of  the  organization.  Hence  the  very  practical 
question  arises.  How  to  make  a  minimum  of  compulsion 
secure  the  ends  desired.  We  may  now  survey  the  means 
through  which  this  is  realized. 

I.  The  Gradation  of  Penalties.  —  This  involves  first 
the  certainty  of  guilt.  And  this  in  turn  means  the  elimi- 
nation of  guesswork,  the  substitution  of  adequate  in- 
formation-getting agencies.  The  Harriman  lines  check 
their  local  agents  by  a  press-clipping  bureau,  in  which 
the  real  sources  of  complaint  are  traced  out.  In  other 
companies  the  watchful  executive  eye  is  supplemented 
by  checkers,  inspectors,  complaint  bureaus,  detectives, 


ADMINISTERING  PUNISHMENT  195 

occasionally  an  investigation,  and  by  minor  officials, 
each  of  whom  in  turn  is  responsible  for  certain  subor- 
dinates.    The  facts  must  first  be  known. 

Definiteness  of  punishment  should  follow  hard  upon 
certainty  of  guilt.  In  theory,  of  course,  all  will  agree 
that  pimishment  is  for  the  offender ;  yet  resentment 
rises  when  wrong  is  discovered  and  not  necessarily  when 
the  wrongdoer  is  present.  The  day  when  the  congre- 
gation is  sparse  normally  calls  forth  the  scolding  sermon 
on  lax  church  attendance,  however  contrary  to  principle 
this  may  be.  Execrations  in  the  counting  house  do  not 
reach  the  defaulting  cashier  in  Canada,  nor  do  rogues 
more  than  smile  at  blind  rage.  Let  the  vials  of  wrath, 
if  used,  be  employed  with  specific  intent.  The  evildoer 
is  liable  to  be  tiiick-skinned ;  only  concentrated  acid 
will  bum. 

Full  measure^  too,  is  required  for  the  glaring  offense.  ^ 
He  who  would  successfully  rule  a  turbulent  country 
should  not  hate  blood.  Essentially  a  non-fighting  man, 
Madero  employed  no  rigorous  means,  even  with  his 
bitterest  enemies.  Reyes  and  Felix  Diaz  both  fell  into 
his  hands  after  starting  revolutions  against  him,  and 
neither  was  put  to  death,  as  his  friends  demanded,  but 
lived  to  plot  against  him  again.  So  mild  was  Henry  IV 
that  the  princes  and  nobles  of  France  saw  in  rebellion 
a  game  in  which  there  was  much  to  gain  and  little  to 
lose.  Mazzini's  easy  tolerance,  while  it  secured  good 
behavior  in  general,  was  flaunted  by  the  rougher  elements 
in  Rome.  Now  it  is  for  these  worst  that  punishment  is 
especially  designed.  Restraint  is  the  end  sought,  be  the 
means  to  secure  it  severe  or  mild. 

The  disciplinarian,  accordingly,  should  select  from  a 
wide  array  of  weapons  that  which  serves  best  in  each 
particular  case.  There  are  the  rack  and  pinion,  guillo- 
tine, noose,  dimgeon,  and  kindred  instruments  of  torture 


196  DISCIPLINE 

able  to  crush  out  life  itself.^  There  are  the  fine,  the 
suspension,  the  discharge,  all  wielded  in  their  direct 
form  by  the  average  employer;  scarcely  less  so  by 
men  such  as  Andrew  Jackson,  who  once  saw  to  it  that 
of  the  twenty-three  Tennessee  legislators  voting  against 
him  twenty  were  not  retained  to  ofl&ce,  an  object  lesson 
not  soon  to  be  forgotten ;  and  who  as  President  cleaned 
the  public  service  of  every  nefarious  Adams  adherent ! 
Other  weapons  no  less  effective  in  the  hands  of  a  master 
are  irony,  sarcasm,  and  invective.  John  Randolph 
employed  these  in  a  most  cutting  way,  with  elongated 
arms  and  long,  bony  forefinger  pointing  at  the  object 
of  his  aversion  as  with  a  stick.  Samuel  Houston  char- 
acterized Jefferson  Davis  as  "  Ambitious  as  Lucifer  and 
cold  as  a  lizard,"  an  instance  typical  of  his  stinging 
humor.  John  Quincy  Adams  had  a  power  in  invective 
under  which  men  winced  and  cowered,  even  became 
dumb  or  furious  with  mad  rage  before  his  fiercer  assaults, 
and  he  used  it  untiringly  and  without  mercy. 

Such  methods,  and  the  list  might  be  prolonged  indefi- 
nitely, indicate  the  range  of  the  compelling  force;  it 
varies  at  need  from  the  lightest  touch  of  displeasure  to 
the  death-dealing  vengeance  wreaked  by  an  Assir-Natsir 
Pal.     Be  this  force,  however,  rigorous  or  mild,  its  gen- 

1  The  extremities  to  which  ancient  monarchs  would  go  is  graphically 
set  forth  by  the  Assyrian  Assir-Natsir  Pal's  account,  written  about 
850  B.C.,  of  his  conquest.  "They  did  not  embrace  my  feet.  With 
combat  and  with  slaughter  I  attacked  the  city  and  captured  it;  three 
thousand  of  their  fighting  men  I  slew  with  the  sword.  Their  spoil,  their 
goods,  their  oxen,  and  their  sheep  I  carried  away.  The  numerous  cap- 
tives I  burned  with  fire.  I  captured  many  of  the  soldiers  alive.  I  cut 
off  the  hands  and  feet  of  some,  the  ears,  and  fingers  of  others ;  the  eyes 
of  numerous  soldiers  I  put  out.  I  built  up  a  pyramid  of  the  living  and 
a  pyramid  of  the  heads.  In  the  middle  of  them  I  suspended  their 
heads  on  vine  stems  in  the  neighborhood  of  their  city.  Their  young 
men  and  their  maidens  I  burned  on  a  holocaust.  The  city  I  overthrew, 
dug  up,  and  burned  with  fire.  I  annihilated  it."  West,  Ancient  His- 
tory, SS' 


SELF-GOVERNMENT  197 

eral  effect  is  to  induce  fear ;  and  fear  is  the  great  inhib- 
itor of  action. 

2.  Social,  Moral,  or  Religious  Supplements.  —  The 
one  disciplined  is  not  an  isolated  individual  but  a  member 
of  an  organization  or  group.  The  initial  compulsion 
visited  upon  him  thus  may  be  multiplied  manyfold,  pro- 
vided his  group  also  turn  upon  him.  In  this  loss  of  gen- 
eral esteem,  this  forfeiture  of  fellowship  and  respect 
and  religious  peace,  with  all  cultivated  natures,  lies  the 
real  onus  of  guilt ;  few,  even  the  most  stiff-necked,  can 
long  bear  up  under  it. 

But  unduly  coercive  methods  imite  the  group  in 
opposition,  make  a  hero  of  the  wrongdoer,  and  in  this 
way  defeat  their  own  ends.  Religious  persecution 
abounds  in  instances  of  this  overdone  sort.  Anne  Dur- 
bourg,  condemned  to  be  burned  alive,  by  exhorting  to 
her  very  last  breath,  made  more  converts  among  the  by- 
standers than  had  the  books  of  Calvin ;  said  Latimer  to 
Ridley  when  he  was  led  out  to  be  burned,  "  We  shall  this 
day  light  such  a  candle  in  England  as  shall  not  soon  be 
put  out,"  a  prophecy  abundantly  verified.  But  simi- 
larly fruitful  have  been  the  deaths  of  those  faithful  to 
Catholicism ;  "  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of 
the  Church."  We  must  conclude  that  resistance  even 
unto  martyrdom  does  not  prove  the  truth  of  anything. 
The  martyr  spirit,  as  Professor  Ross  points  out,^  is  a 
mark  not  of  truth  but  of  collective  reaction. 

If  effectiveness  is  to  be  secured,  this  collective  reaction 
must  be  turned  against  the  culprit  in  support  of  the 
punishment.  Ben  Butler  usually  had  the  numerous 
"  hangers-on  "  in  the  court  room  on  his  side  from  the 
start,  and  he  deftly  employed  their  glances  and  audible 
approval  for  the  discomfiture  of  the  hostile  witness. 
The  Keiser  Company  heads  off  any  resentment  due  to 

^  Soc.  Psy.,  304.     Cf.  299-305. 


198  DISCIPLINE 

penalties  for  tardiness  by  turning  these  fines  into  the 
fund  for  needy  employees.  A  merchant  having  too  many 
slow-pay  customers,  by  offering  prizes  for  the  best  essays 
on  "How  to  Collect  Poor  Accounts,"  stirred  up  so 
much  talk  over  credit  and  what  should  be  done  with 
those  who  did  not  pay  that  not  only  did  his  cash  business 
increase  rapidly,  but  many,  evidently  fearing  that  their 
neighbors*  suggestions  would  be  employed  upon  them, 
paid  up.  The  public  schools  have  worked  out  notable 
instances  of  pupil  government,  and  in  pursuance  of  the 
same  policy  college  faculties  have  encouraged  the  honor 
system.  The  principle,  whatever  concrete  forms  it  may 
take,  is  clear :  disciplinary  power  may  he  so  supplemented 
that  its  original  source  in  the  executive  is  broadened  until 
self-government  ensues. 

J.  The  Dhgree  of  Publicity.  —  Shall  the  discipline  be 
publicly  or  privately  administered  ?  A  sufficient  answer 
perhaps  is  found  in  the  above  discussion;  it  depends 
upon  the  relations  existing  between  offender  and  organ- 
ization. When  the  eyes  of  the  many  indicate  contempt, 
scorn,  or  disdain,  strength  of  control  inheres  in  the  public 
spectacle.  To  the  contrary,  punishment  being  even 
pleasurable  when  inflicted  before  a  S3nnpathizing  group, 
no  miscreant  should  be  permitted  to  fashion  for  himself 
a  neat  make-up  in  the  public  mirror.  Let  him  suffer 
in  private. 

fii  the  group,  moreover,  there  is  likely  to  be  foimd 
both  saint  and  sinner.  The  sensitiveness  of  the  saint 
need  not  be  unduly  abused  by  witnessing  the  crude  yet 
salutary  measures  necessary  to  restrain  the  sinner. 
Let  the  coarse  malefactor  have  private  punishment, 
consequently ;  knowledge  of  what  transpired  is  sure  to 
seep  to  others  of  his  kind. 

Frequent  discipline,  in  addition,  indicates  friction,  its 
suggestion  effect  in  this  way  being  negative.    Hence  the 


A  DISPENSER  OF  JUSTICE  199 

added  value  of  private  punishment.  Hence,  too,  the 
effectiveness  of  "  nipping  troubles  in  the  bud,"  of  "  iron- 
ing out  spots  that  threaten  trouble."  The  organization 
which  apparently  runs  smoothly  by  its  seeming  harmony 
tends  to  make  these  indications  a  reality. 

4.  Formalized  Discipline.  —  Discipline  in  any  organ- 
ization does  not  rest  solely  upon  the  initiative  of  its 
executive,  upon  territory  de  novo;  there  are  certain 
accretions  upon  which  it  may  build.  Society  in  general 
has  its  conventions  and  customs  in  conformity  to  which 
all  men  are  expected  to  act.  Each  type  of  minor  organ- 
ization still  further  modifies  these  broad  social  rules, 
working  out  regulations  which  apply  more  particularly 
to  its  own  activities.  The  medical  profession  has  its 
code;  so  has  the  steamfitters'  union.  More  or  less 
happily  meeting  the  situation  and  hallowed  by  usage, 
sometimes,  in  fact,  hardened  into  a  written  form  backed 
up  by  authority  of  the  state,  such  rules  and  regula- 
tions in  themselves  constitute  a  binding  force.  The 
railroad  enginemen  expect  pimishment  to  fall  upon  the 
fellow  member  who  disobeys  orders ;  he  himself  expects 
it,  usually  accepts  it  as  his  lot.  'Tis  the  rule  of  the  road  ! 
Discipline  has  become  formalized,  and,  though  wielded 
by  an  organization  head,  both  its  necessity  and  the  forms 
and  degrees  of  its  punishment  take  on  an  impersonal 
character.  Individual  resentment  if  it  be  aroused  dashes 
itself  fruitlessly  against  the  gnarled  trunks  of  ancient  trees. 

5.  A  Sense  of  Detachment.  —  He  who  wields  the  rod 
should  appear  not  foe  but  dispenser  of  justice.  Brutish 
violence,  the  red  fang  of  violence,  the  glowering  brow, 
bring  fear,  but  they  do  not  necessarily  stir  the  monitor 
within  the  breast.  It  is,  however,  a  matter  of  neither 
harsh  penalty  nor  easy,  but  of  the  dispenser's  being 
considered  as  the  spokesman  of  Right,  the  embodiment 
of  Justice,  the  mouthpiece  of  Divinity. 


300  DISCIPLINE 

With  this  sense  of  detachment  are  connected  three 
policies.  First,  the  rule  maker  should  respect  his  own 
regulations.  It  is  related  that  when  Cortes  unwittingly 
violated  the  ordinances  regarding  attendance  at  divine 
services,  he  accepted  reprimand  from  the  pulpit  on  the 
following  Sunday  and,  to  the  stupefaction  of  the  Indians, 
submitted  to  the  prescribed  flogging  in  public.  Such 
deeds  are  the  greenhouse  in  which  the  sense  of  detach- 
ment may  flourish. 

Second,  with  the  passing  of  retaliation,  the  plea  of 
extenuating  circumstances  gets  a  hearing.  The  intent 
may  be  considered.  Punishment  becomes  an  efficient 
psychological  machine  by  means  of  which  pressure  is 
evenly  distributed. 

And  third,  by  this  sense  of  detachment  is  settled  the 
problem  of  burden  bearing  in  reality.  The  onus  of  guilt 
belongs  to  the  offender.  Let  it  weigh  upon  him.  The 
good  disciplinarian  does  not  swelter  under  a  load  of 
misdeeds,  but  rather  does  he  bend  every  effort  to  a  much 
more  fruitful  task,  that  of  opening  the  path  upon  which 
the  self-alienated  may  return  home.  Meanwhile  his 
voice  is  strong,  his  face  serene;   for  he  has  sinned  not. 

6.  The  Element  of  Certainty.  —  The  essence  of  disci- 
pline is  the  sense  of  restraint  it  induces.  Its  effective- 
ness as  a  weapon,  therefore,  in  no  wise  depends  upon 
the  mere  sum  total  of  blows  or  demerits  issued,  but 
upon  minimum  compulsion's  securing  the  desired  con- 
trol. This  fact  emphasizes  the  importance  of  certainty ; 
it  deters.  The  many  who  would  transgress,  knowing 
the  fate  of  him  who  did,  are  thus  without  punishment 
bound  to  the  ways  of  order. 

Moreover,  this  sense  of  restraint  which  pervades  fac- 
tory, school,  or  state  has  its  positive  as  well  as  its  nega- 
tive effect.  For,  as  Professor  Ross  rightly  observes, 
the  rules  of  the  game  are  respected  by  the  many  good 


CERTAINTY  OF  PUNISHMENT  aoi 

men  chiefly  because  they  are  forced  upon  the  few  bad. 
Were  this  respect  not  justified,  goodness  would  be  penal- 
ized and  wickedness  exalted  in  high  places,  a  process  in 
which  any  organization  would  be  ground  into  dust  under 
the  iron  heel  of  selfishness.  But  certainty,  the  faith 
that  justice  will  be  meted  out,  brings  uneasiness  and 
insurrection  into  the  breast  of  the  guilty,  while  the  rule- 
abiding  are  calm  and  confident.  It  rewards  as  well  as 
deters. 

It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  certainty  is  synony- 
mous with  a  long  list  of  penalties  drawn  up  with  exact- 
ness and  published  in  advance.  Such  procedure  has  evil 
influence,  in  that  it  seems  to  assume  wrongdoing  as  a 
matter  of  course,  by  its  list  of  possible  offenses,  suggest- 
ing crimes  otherwise  never  conceived;  it  apparently 
dares  men  to  oppose,  and  there  are  those  who  cannot 
withstand  a  dare ;  and  especially  does  it  turn  the  pro- 
spective wrongdoer  into  a  skillful  bargainer.  "  So 
much  spoiled  work,  so  many  days  off.  Is  the  game 
worth  the  candle?  "  Hence  along  with  certainty  of 
pimishment  may  be  intertwined  much  uncertainty  as 
to  means  and  amount.  Though  he  knows  not  what, 
the  evildoer  knows  there  is  something.  In  the  unfamiliar 
and  the  unknown  lurks  fear;  and  fear,  once  roused, 
haimts  the  mind. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Suppose  a  contractor's  laborers  ojffered  to  become  his 
slaves.     Would  it  be  to  his  advantage  to  accept  ? 

2.  Why  do  executives  find  those  married,  or  at  least  con- 
tributing to  the  family  support,  easier  to  discipline? 

3.  What  changes  during  the  past  century  in  family  discipline? 
How  does  this  affect  executives? 

4.  In  disciplining  factory  operatives  what  penalties  are  most 
effective? 

5.  Should  capital  punishment  be  abolished?  Corporal  pun- 
ishment in  schools? 


202  DISCIPLINE 

6.  Discuss  the  pros  and  cons  of  magnanimity  as  a  policy  of 
discipline. 

7.  Should  greater  punishment  be  visited  because  of  things 
done  wrongly  or  things  left  undone? 

8.  Outline  a  system  of  records  for  some  specific  organization, 
through  which  undesirable  employees  discharge  themselves. 

READINGS 

Machiavelli,  The  Prince,  Chs.  XEI-XIV. 
Roosevelt,  Autobiography j  Ch.  XII. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

Rewards 

"There  is  nothing  men  will  not  attempt  when  great  enter- 
prises hold  out  the  promise  of  great  rewards."  —  Livy. 

Ranging  from  firmest  determination  to  softest  color- 
ation of  consciousness,  the  call  to  effort  evokes  the 
query,  What  am  I  going  to  get  out  of  this?  Were  it 
not  so,  satisfactions  would  have  been  spurned  and  the 
race,  expending  its  energies  fruitlessly,  in  the  long 
struggle  for  existence  had  perished.  Because  it  is  so, 
the  average  man  seeks  the  largest  return  for  least  effort, 
and  executives  are  not  only  compelled  to  furnish  these 
rewards,  but  to  display  them  before  adept  bargainers. 

Lest  this  seem  unduly  to  limit  leadership  to  men  of 
money,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  rewards  are  varied 
and  need  not  necessarily  savor  of  the  material  at  all. 
Any  small  boy,  with  no  thought  of  coin,  would  be  proud 
to  carry  the  sweater  and  protect  the  mitt  of  his  major 
league  hero.  In  such  service  is  joy.  Thousands  trudged 
willingly  along  imder  the  warm  promises  of  Henry  IV, 
the  dashing  example  of  Alexander,  the  glory  paintings 
of  Bonaparte,  the  splendor  of  Louis  XIV's  Versailles, 
the  illusions  of  John  Alexander  Dowie,  the  fear  felt 
for  a  Rameses  or  a  Cyrus.  Nor  even  in  this  rationalistic 
age  have  "  solid  realities  "  yet  claimed  the  full  orb  of  life. 
The  non-material,  even  though  at  times  intangible  as 
the  tints  of  a  rainbow  palac^,  has  its  place,  may  even 
be  forsooth  the  most  real  of  all  realities.     This  becomes 

203 


204  REWARDS 

possible  since  rewards  consist  in  certain  psychic  reactions, 
at  bottom  being  not  in  things  hut  of  the  mind. 

THE  VARIETY   OF  REWARDS 

A  whole  gamut  of  rewards  is  thus  thrown  open  for  use. 
Public  spectacles  once  pleased  a  people ;  Nero  provided 
these.  Amorous  attachment  with  the  females  captured  in 
war  was  a  Moslem  longing ;  Mohammed  had  a  convenient 
revelation  which  removed  all  scruples.  Security  with 
the  unseen  was  of  deep  interest  to  medieval  Europe ; 
"  Lo !  "  said  Tetzel.  "  Heaven  is  open.  Oh,  senseless 
men,  who  do  not  appreciate  such  a  shedding  forth  of 
grace !  For  twelve  pennies  you  can  deliver  your  father." 
A  seat  in  the  peerage  was  the  bait  Pitt  industriously 
employed ;  he  ennobled  with  unsparing  hands.  National 
glory,  political  preferment,  personal  health,  rejuvenated 
society,  anything  which  shines  in  the  eyes  of  men  can  he 
used  for  their  reward. 

Now  of  these  things  which  are  accounted  good,  the 
material  has  never  ceased  to  lure.  By  its  ability  to  oil 
the  wheels  of  social  intercourse  through  lavishness  in 
/entertainment,  winning  thereby  the  coveted  mate  by 
(outmatching  feminine  coyness  with  gilded  display, 
and  compelling  social  esteem  by  means  of  a  wide-flung 
conspicuousness  in  leisure  and  a  conspicuousness  in 
waste;  with  its  costly  sacrifices  and  sanctuaries  and 
rich  spoil  finding  favor  with  the  unseen  and  making 
legal  action  devious  but  convenient ;  and  by  its  nodding 
or  frowning  upon  artist,  composer,  playwright,  author 
and  journalist  until  even  the  once  furious  outcry  over 
tainted  money  has  been  toned  into  respectability  by 
tainted  news  and  tainted  ethics,  —  wealth  makes  vivid 
the  Hindu  poet's  claim,  "  Verily  a  man  with  money  is 
the  top  of  all  creation."    At  least  the  fact  is  clearly 


THE  LURE  OF  GOODS  205 

emphasized,  that  since  cravings  in  all  forms  may  thus 
lay  claim  to  goods,  greed  is  whetted  to  a  keen  edge 
and  avarice  swells  to  monstrous  proportions.^ 

Wealth  lures ;  in  addition,  it  does  not  satiate.  Unlike 
most  other  instincts  in  this  respect,  acquisitiveness 
expands  without  limit.  The  second  glass  of  water 
yields  less  satisfaction  than  the  first,  the  third  apple 
possibly  evokes  no  response  whatever,  the  fourth  griddle 
cake  may  be  nauseating ;  yet  the  first  thousand  dollars 
beckons  for  the  second,  the  comfortable  bank  book  is 
followed  by  the  coupon,  and  hard  upon  this  is  the  brown- 
stone,  the  country  place,  the  steam  yacht,  more  bank 
books  and  more  coupons,  —  ad  infinitum  but  not  ad 
nauseam.  The  few  men  content  with  possession  as  a 
means  of  satisfying  other  desires  are  almost  edipsed  by 
those  desiring  possession  for  its  own  sake. 

In  material  rewards,  for  those  who  are  able,  lies 
the  possibility  of  much  motivation.  Folk  came  from 
all  parts  of  Egypt  to  see  Saladin,  and  none  appealed 
to  him  in  vain  !  Men  of  seeming  riches  whose  finances 
were  in  disorder,  influential  ladies  in  pecuniary  embar- 
rassment, insolvent  young  nobles,  merchants  and 
bankers  in  distress,  all  appHed  to  Caesar ;  his  gold,  says 
Mommsen,  flowed  in  streams.  Before  victory  graced 
Mohammed's  banners  the  idolatrous  tribes  of  Arabia  held 
aloof;  but  the  first  cavalcade  which  entered  the  gates 
of  Medina  with  the  plunder  of  camp  made  converts  of 
almost  all  the  heathen  inhabitants,  and  the  hitherto 
ignored  Mohammed  was  hailed  as  a  triumphant  chief. 
It  was  by  means  of  champagne,  sausages,  and  cigars 
that  Napoleon  III,  the  lavish  dispenser,  bought  the 
shouts  of  "  Vive  Napoleon !  Vive  I'Empereur !  "  from 
whole  regiments  on  the  plains  of  St.  Mairr.  Be  the 
circuit  direct  or  many  steps  removed,  money  is  able. 
1  Ross,  Foundations  of  Sociology,  1 70-1 71. 


2o6  REWARDS 

The  American,  critics  from  abroad  to  be  believed,  is 
especially  led  by  materialistic  motives.  Perhaps  this 
is  true,  though  by  no  means  in  the  sordid  sense  implied. 
Americans  from  the  first  have  rejected  titles  and  class 
distinctions,  in  many  respects,  as  compared  with  Euro- 
peans, developing  a  society  devoid  of  charm.  But  in 
wealth  was  afforded  a  convenient  means  of  differentia- 
tion, and  this  the  American  had  adopted  and  utihzed. 
In  consequence,  riches  with  us  serve  not  as  lucre,  but  as 
signs  of  personal  prowess. 

These  signs,  however,  are  not  so  clear  that  he  who 
runs  may  read.  The  millionaire  has  his  automobile, 
but  so  has  the  multitude.  His  wife  has  a  sealskin  coat 
and  a  diamond  necklace;  the  cunningly  disguised 
badger's  skin  adorns  the  drug  clerk's  wife,  and  the  coal 
heaver's  spouse  wears  paste  diamonds  "  detected  only 
by  experts."  Such  "  successes  "  —  and  they  are  wide- 
spread —  intensify  to  maddening  pitch  the  pursuit  of 
wealth.  The  itch  for  gold  spreads  throughout  the  social 
system  until  even  the  vaunted  idealist,  though  possibly 
self-deluded,  at  heart  here  moves  with  the  multitude. 
It  is  true,  the  crass  appeal  to  gain  is  resented,  most  men 
preferring  to  pose  a  bit ;  but  at  bottom  the  pocketbook 
argument  usually  wins.^ 

Especially  is  this  true  when  the  task  is  prosaic.  The 
discoverer  of  the  North  Pole,  the  painter  of  the  salon 
prize  winner,  the  writer  of  an  immortal  poem,  in  honor 
reaps  his  true  reward.  His  name  is  forever  connected 
up  with  his  product,  his  task  necessarily  being  more  or 
less  spectacular,  and  bringing  rewards  from  many  sources. 

^  The  New  Freedom  at  Washington  was  ushered  in  by  a  deluge  of 
demands  to  serve  the  government — with  proper  emoluments.  Speaker 
Clark  kept  four  stenographers  busy  dictating  replies  to  his  job  seekers. 
Confessed  another  Congressman, "  I  have  received  about  a  thousand  letters 
in  the  past  four  days,  and  they  are  still  coming."  The  motto  properly 
revised  evidently  was,  "Apply  the  way  you  vote." 


EMPHASIS  ON  MONEY  207 

Not  so  with  the  carpenter,  the  blacksmith,  the  sweat- 
shop tailor,  with  all  those  whose  labor  is  secret  because 
to  the  user  the  maker  is  unknown.  His  product  bestows 
no  great  pubKc  honor  upon  the  concrete  mixer  or  the 
workman  who,  in  the  division  of  labor,  makes  one  three 
hundred  and  fiftieth  of  a  shoe.  Yet  these  men,  too, 
must  have  a  motive;  this  is  pecuniary,  necessarily  so. 
It  is  not  without  reason,  since  Ufe  abounds  with  stupid 
tasks,  that  money  rewards  easily  overtop  all  other 
methods  of  stimulation  and  control. 

APPORTIONING  REWARDS 

In  seeking  for  principles  upon  which  to  base  an  effec- 
tive system  of  rewards  we  plunge  into  the  most  lively 
problem  of  present-day  management.  All  the  old  sys- 
tems are  under  fire ;  workmen  and  job  are  being  sub- 
jected to  laboratory  analysis,  new  methods  are  being 
devised  and  tested  out.  It  seems  indeed  that  the  im- 
portance of  the  human  energy  element  in  industry  is  in 
process  of  realization. 

It  may  be  well  at  the  outset  to  focus  attention  upon 
this  fact,  that  what  is  primarily  desired  from  workmen  is 
not  fatigiie,  hut  results.  It  is  perhaps  a  natural  tendency 
of  our  nature  to  measure  labor  by  its  irksomeness,  the 
penance  idea  in  industry.  This,  however,  does  not 
accord  with  what  to  the  management  is  the  fundamental 
reason  why  wages  are  paid  at  all,  viz.  the  productive- 
ness of  labor.  Accordingly,  the  executive  ranks  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  closed  to  that  old-time  manager 
whose  view  of  efficiency  was  based  upon  a  crude  measure 
of  muscle  weariness.  The  muscles,  it  is  true,  may  be- 
come weary;  nevertheless,  men  are  not  paid  because 
they  grow  tired  at  work,  but  because  they  produce. 

A  primary  principle,  therefore,  is  that  rewards  are  to 


2o8  REWARDS 

be  graded  according  to  results  produced.  Here  lurks 
another  fallacy,  vigorously  seized  upon  and  emphasized 
by  agitators,  and  responsible,  no  doubt,  for  much  unrest 
among  wage  earners,  —  the  view  that  production  refers 
solely  to  material  objects.  According  to  this  view,  the 
concrete  mixer  is  the  real  builder  of  the  bridge  and  is 
entitled  to  the  full  reward  thereof,  a  part  of  which,  how- 
ever, often  an  extremely  large  part,  being  somehow 
filched  from  him  by  architect,  contractor,  and  other 
leisurely  gentlemen.  But  production  refers  merely  to 
the  creation  of  utilities,  and  these,  being  defined  as  what- 
ever is  able  to  satisfy  wants,  may  be  either  material  or 
non-material.  In  this  sense  it  is  clear  that  so  far  as 
their  abiUty  to  produce  utilities  is  concerned,  all  men 
within  an  organization  are  not  of  equal  value.  The 
division  of  labor  has  made  for  a  ranking  of  men  accord- 
ing to  types  of  effort  manifested  by  each,  and  rewards 
have  been  made  somewhat  proportional.  A  certain 
shoe  manufacturer  pays  a  stores  clerk  at  beginning 
fifteen  dollars  per  week,  an  amount  which,  increased  as 
he  becomes  more  experienced,  yields  the  head  of  the  stores 
department  one  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  per  year. 
Another  well-known  manufacturer,  an  automobile  maker, 
in  his  plants  has  rewards  ranging  from  fifteen  cents  an 
hour  to  sixty  thousand  dollars  per  year. 

The  grading  of  rewards  has  in  general  stopped  short 
of  those  at  the  basis  of  our  industrial  pyramid,  here 
being  commonly  enforced  the  flat  day  wage  rate.  The 
man  is  paid  for  his  time ;  what  he  does  during  this  time, 
while  it  may  possibly  affect  the  tenure  of  his  position,  is 
without  influence  on  his  wage  rate.  Even  though  the 
wages  paid  to  the  group  presumably  are  fair,  the  indus- 
trious and  efficient  workman  is  hampered.  He  sees 
that  additional  or  better  directed  effort,  so  far  as  rewards 
are  concerned,  is  thrown  away.    He  proceeds  to  "sol- 


SYSTEMATIC   "SOLDIERING"  209 

dier  "  systematically.  Example  is  infectious,  and  his, 
set  by  a  superior  workman,  is  especially  so ;  the  con- 
tagion spreads  through  the  plant,  and  from  plant  to 
plant,  until,  as  now,  systematic  soldiering  becomes  a 
dry-rot  menace  in  industry. 

Should  the  above-average  workman  seek  to  raise  his 
wage,  he  does  it  through  collective  bargaining,  usually 
conducted  by  means  of  trade-unions.  A  new  wage  rate 
is  brought  about  by  collective  pressure.  It  means  that 
poorer  workmen  are  then  overpaid  and  hence  demoral- 
ized, that  the  exceptional  man  is  still  underpaid,  that 
mediocrity  is  enthroned,  that  the  management  often 
suffers  from  extortion,  and  that  the  seeds  of  discord 
spread  broadcast  yield  harvests  of  inefficiency. 

In  practice,  not  all  these  evils  usually  are  encountered 
in  any  one  instance.  The  workmen  are  put  under  the 
watchful  eye  of  a  foreman.  Wages  are  set  at  what  a 
good  man  should  be  willing  to  work  for.  The  foreman 
drives  his  gang  at  the  swiftest  pace  possible.  Laggards 
are  discharged,  in  so  far  as  collective  pressure  from  other 
members  will  permit.  Exceptional  men  by  and  by 
may  be  made  foremen.  These  endure  the  present  dis- 
advantage, discounting  them  in  the  light  of  later  pros- 
pects. While  all  workmen  still  receive  the  same  wage, 
the  flat  rate  is  somewhat  modified  and  supplemented. 
But  these  changes  usually  are  slight  and  represent  no 
break  in  the  order  of  things. 

To  satisfy  ambition  and  stimulate  initiative,  to  meet 
the  claims  of  justice  as  well,  rewards  must  rest,  not  upon 
time  taken  but  work  done.  It  means  an  entire  shift  in 
point  of  view.  And  to  operate  it  successfully  requires 
not  merely  skill  in  management  but  also  moral  fiber. 

There  are  numerous  variations  of  this  wage  plan, 
some  managers  meeting  success  with  one  type,  some 
with  another,  as  particular  conditions  vary.     But  they 


2IO  REWARDS 

'^  all  require  a  standard  reward  to  be  set.  Fundamentally, 
the  distribution  of  wealth  is  here  involved,  the  question 
of  how  best  to  divide  into  its  four  parts  the  returns  of 
industry,  viz.  wages,  interest,  rent,  and  profits.  With 
human  nature  as  it  is,  each  party  in  the  apportionment 
magnifying  its  own  influence  while  minimizing  the 
claims  of  the  other  sharers,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  an- 
tagonism which  arises  between  capital  and  labor  will 
persist  for  a  very  long  time.  The  best  remedy,  and, 
from  his  standpoint,  the  only  real  solution  of  the  labor 
problem,  perhaps,  is  that  the  executive  shall  become 
efficient  in  producing  and  fair  in  dividing.  And  this, 
happily,  is  now  in  process. 

In  setting  the  standard  reward  itself,  various  methods 
have  been  employed.  The  management  may  decide 
and  announce  the  fact,  the  employees  may  decide  and 
employ  pressure  to  enforce  their  wishes,  a  man  picked 
by  the  company  and  another  picked  by  the  workmen 
may  work  together  and  average  their  output  during  a 
specified  time,  an  arbitrator  can  be  called  in  either  to 
work  or  to  estimate,  or  the  standard  reward  may  be  set 
in  conference.  However  decided  upon,  should  it  be 
accepted  as  satisfactory,  the  basic  requirement  will  have 
been  met. 

This  standard  reward  in  practice  is  subject  to  numer- 
ous modifications.  One  form  widely  employed  is  the 
piece  rate.  The  more  units  completed  the  higher  the 
wage.  This  flat  piece  rate  in  turn  may  be  modified 
into  the  differential  piece  rate,  the  higher  the  number 
being  turned  out  the  greater  the  piece  price  rate.  Or 
it  may  be  a  cost  rate.  The  management  is  willing  to 
pay  a  certain  wage  cost  per  article  produced.  The  slow 
worker  gets  a  low  wage  because  with  him  the  standard 
cost  wage  is  divided  by  the  relatively  large  number  of 
hours  it  took  him  to  complete  the  product.    The  rapid 


WAGE  SYSTEMS  2H 

worker  doubles  his  wages  by  cutting  down  his  time  one 
half  as  compared  with  the  standard  time.  Or  again  it 
may  be  a  premium  rate.  Sometimes  this  premium  is 
given  all  who  complete  the  standard  task  set.  At 
other  times  the  premium  itself  is  graded,  the  bonus 
increasing  proportionally  as  the  standard  task  is  ex- 
ceeded. 

By  such  means,  and  in  their  combination  and  adap- 
tation, individuality  is  recognized  in  that  the  reward 
is  made  specific  and  personal,  more  fitting.  High- 
grade  men  get  top-notch  wages,  low-grade  men  are 
scaled  down.  Such  a  payment  plan  works  both  ways, 
attracting  the  efficient  and  eliminating  the  incompetent. 
Its  effect  is  to  develop  the  working  force  able  to  increase 
output. 

This  increased  output  is  maintained  at  a  less  imit 
cost  than  was  formerly  possible  even  under  what  likely 
was  a  considerably  lower  day  wage  rate.  Managers  are 
coming  to  look  behind  high  or  low  wages  so-called,  and 
focus  their  eye  on  this  production  cost  per  article.  To 
take  an  illustration  from  the  field  of  mechanics,  it  is 
estimated  that  thirty-seven  Chinese  coolies  working 
on  a  treadmill  are  required  in  order  to  produce  one  con- 
tinuous horse  power.  Though  their  wages  are  only  one 
cent  per  hour,  the  annual  cost  for  one  horse  power  is 
$1336.  Our  managers  may  pay  for  the  same  power 
only  thirteen  dollars.  Hence,  should  such  one-cent-per- 
hour  employees  by  chance  be  discovered  at  work  in  an 
American  shop,  they  would  be  discharged  summarily 
as  the  most  ruinous  of  expense  makers.  What  really 
interests  executives  is  the  possibility  —  and  it  is  being 
realized  again  and  again  —  that  with  high  wages  may 
still  be  secured  low  labor  cost. 

Much  is  said  of  the  common  interests  of  employer  and 
employee,  but  in  a  very  real  sense  their  relations  also 


212  REWARDS 

contain  an  element  of  antagonism.  The  employer  desires 
product,  wages  being  merely  a  means  to  that  end.  The 
employee,  vice  versa,  desires  wages,  product  with  him 
being  merely  a  means  to  an  end.  In  this,  as  in  other 
situations,  it  is  common  for  rivals  to  clash.  Here  then 
is  another  task  for  the  executive ;  although  wages  have 
been  adjusted  so  that  minimum  reward  induces  maximum 
expenditure,  the  men's  success  should  he  hound  up  with 
that  of  the  management. 

"  Caesar,"  says  Mommsen,  "  took  care  that  victory, 
which  primarily  no  doubt  brings  gain  to  the  general, 
should  be  associated  also  with  personal  hopes  in  the 
minds  of  the  soldiers."  Cortes  had  some  of  the  best 
men  of  Cuba  rallied  to  his  standard  and  financially 
interested  in  having  his  expedition  succeed.  John 
Quincy  Adams  refused  to  secure  his  reelection  by  the 
use  of  patronage ;  but  coining  the  phrase,  "  You  may 
say  to  all  our  anxious  Adamsite  friends  that  the  harnacles 
will  he  scraped  clean  of  the  Ship  of  State, '^  Hill,  an  emis- 
sary of  the  "  Old  Hero,"  rallied  new  hosts  of  self- 
seekers  to  do  valorous  service.  Jackson  was  elected 
and  his  friends  were  remembered.  Only  an  occasional 
politican  —  and  he  usually  a  single  termer  —  has  since 
repeated  Adams'  blunder ! 

What  the  politician  has  done,  the  average  executive 
may  even  more  so  do.  The  plan  is  first  to  determine 
the  factors  upon  which  his  success  depends ;  secondly, 
to  grade  the  rewards  so  that  these  particular  factors  will 
be  realized  in  practice.  Has  the  problem  of  labor 
become  so  simplified  through  the  use  of  machinery  that* 
the  machine,  not  the  man,  is  the  predominant  factor? 
A  flat  day  wage  suffices.  It  may  be  bestowed  upon 
any  one  able  to  meet  the  pace  mechanically  set.  But 
does  quantity  rest  upon  individual  initiative?  The 
piecework   plan  supplies   the  incentive.     It  allows  the 


APPEALS  TO  SELF-INTEREST  213 

employees  to  align  themselves.  Or  does  success  to  the 
manager  rest  upon  quality  ?  A  day  rate  with  emphasis 
upon  this  requirement,  with  penalties  for  low-grade  work, 
perhaps,  being  the  most  positive  emphasis,  will  yield 
high  standard  product.  The  quality  road  is  fully  as 
pleasant  as  the  quantity  road  if  the  rewards  beckon  that 
way.  In  the  case  just  cited,  however,  quantity  is  apt 
to  be  neglected.  But  piece  rates  with  standard  quality 
maintained  by  inspection  can  be  adjusted  to  secure 
both  quantity  and  quality.  Or  again,  does  this  execu- 
tive find  his  success  lies  in  non-fluctuating  output  or  long 
tenures  for  employees?  Although  statistical  tabula- 
tion indicates  his  field  is  of  hill  and  dale,  proper  adjust- 
ment of  rewards  will  grade  it  flat.  And  long  tenure 
follows  hard  upon  cimiulative  rewards  based  upon  length 
of  service. 

When  their  own  success  is  bound  up  with  that  of  the 
management,  men  lend  a  ready  ear  to  pleas  of  common 
interest,  since  this  covers  self-interest  as  well.^ 

BESTOWING  REWARDS 

As  a  general  thing  it  may  be  said  that  the  present 
discounts  the  future.  The  "  now  "  is  more  lively  in  the 
mind  than  the  "  after  a  while."  The  reward  which  comes 
four  times  a  month,  therefore,  is  able  to  buy  more  human 

*  A  new  general  storekeeper,  appointed  to  put  a  stop  to  the  general 
negligence  and  waste  which  had  developed  in  a  railroad  system  that 
heretofore  had  not  held  its  men  accountable  for  the  supplies  they  drew, 
had  he  proceeded  in  summary  fashion  would  have  made  a  host  of  sincere 
and  dangerous  enemies,  rebels  resentful  of  any  doubts  cast  upon  their 
honesty  or  veracity.  The  new  chief  announced:  "We're  in  a  receiver's 
hands,  and  every  nickel  counts.  It  counts  as  much  for  our  steady  wages 
as  it  does  for  the  road.  So  I'm  asking  you  to  turn  in  every  supply  item 
you're  ready  to  throw  away ;  to  sign  for  everything  I  furnish  you ;  and, 
for  all  our  sakes,  to  make  everything  go  as  far  as  it  can."  The  wasteful 
use  of  supplies  suddenly  stopped. 


214  REWARDS 

effort  than  its  equivalent  paid  in  one  lump  sum  at  the 
close  of  the  month,  simply  because  it  yields  greater 
stimulation.  Hence  the  opposition  of  certain  building 
contractors,  for  instance,  to  the  weekly  payment  plan 
showed  a  curious  disregard  of  their  own  interests.  Not 
only  should  they  have  voluntarily  broken  away  from 
the  monthly  payment  system,  but  they  might  well  eschew 
checks  and  pay  in  crisp  one-dollar  bills. 

Readiness  of  pajnnent,  however,  should  not  be  pushed 
to  the  extreme  of  payment  in  advance.  With  all  for- 
ward-looking people  —  and  those  who  accomplish  are 
mostly  of  this  sort  —  the  future  discounts  the  past. 
Thus,  in  contrast  to  the  witching  anticipation  of  what 
may  be,  what  has  been  is  at  best  a  prosy  figure.  Effort 
in  return  for  satisfactions  already  enjoyed  is  pretty  apt 
to  be  of  a  dogged  stick-to-it-tive  sort. 

Proper  bestowal  should  not  only  regard  time  but  spirit. 
Grudgingly  given,  they  impress  upon  workers  the  view 
that  rewards  are  forced  from  the  management.  The  im- 
plication which  follows  is  that  pressure  should  be  applied 
to  this  unwilling  source,  it  being  perhaps  easier  to  coerce 
the  employer  into  granting  the  added  reward  than  to 
earn  it  by  turning  out  more  product.  And  this  pressure 
tends  to  increase  every  time  the  management  yields, 
even  though  in  the  meantime  an  Ancient  Regime  nears 
collapse  or  a  factory  drifts  toward  the  danger  zone. 

Willingly  granted,  rewards  cause  workers  to  feel  that 
it  is  their  mastery  over  conditions  which  yields  the 
wage.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  correct  view ;  wages  can  be 
paid  only  because  labor  applied,  creates  utilities  and 
increases  value.  It  is  his  mastery  over  conditions  which 
fills  the  working  man's  pay  envelope.  Let  him  act 
from  this  standpoint,  and  he  will  pursue  with  whetted 
zeal  his  mastery  over  crude  forces.  The  difference  is 
vital ;  it  entails  no  less  than  a  change  in  point  of  view. 


EXERCISES  AND  READINGS  215 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  rewards  enjoyed  by  the  alderman?  The 
iron  molder?  The  baseball  player?  Are  wage  earners  too 
materialistic  in  their  attitude  toward  rewards? 

2.  Why  have  chairs  for  employees,  electric  fans,  dancing  at 
noon  hour,  etc.,  been  opposed  by  some  employers? 

3.  If  necessary,  and  as  a  constant  policy,  how  high  wages  can 
an  employer  pay  ?  How  low  wages  could  laborers  accept  ?  What 
sets  the  actual  wage? 

4.  Does  increased  production  on  the  part  of  certain  workmen 
throw  other  workmen  out  of  employment?  What  view  as  to  this 
do  laborers  hold? 

5.  Why  are  there  strikes  among  wage  earners?  Why  not 
among  office  workers? 

6.  Is  the  control  of  patronage  a  source  of  strength  to  a  man 
in  public  Hfe? 

7.  Outline  the  system  of  reports  and  other  records  that  some 
organization  uses  as  a  basis  for  its  rewards. 

READINGS 

Taussig,  Principles  of  Economics^  II,  Ch.  47. 
Gantt,  Work,  Wages,  and  Profits. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Idealism 

"  The  zeal  of  nature  never  cools, 
Nor  is  she  thwarted  of  her  ends ; 
When  gapped  and  dulled  her  cheaper  tools, 
Then  she  a  saint  and  prophet  sends." 

—  James  Russell  Lowell. 

Ideals  possess  an  unique  power,  as  has  been,  and 
is  being,  demonstrated  again  and  again.  The  knightly 
type  made  chivalry,  and  redeemed  the  Middle  Ages  of 
much  barrenness;  the  crusader  ideal  drew  thousands 
over  trails  made  desolate  by  the  withering  bones  of  those 
who  had  gone  before ;  the  dazzling  amage  of  glory  and 
honor  for  Fair  France  is  the  secret  of  Napoleon's  phe- 
nomenal sway ;  the  ideals  of  liberty,  equaHty,  progress, 
and  fair  dealing  among  men  profoundly  and  continuously 
stir  ninety-three  millions  of  Americans;  just  as  truth, 
honor,  devotion  to  home  and  country,  are  among  those 
conceptions  which,  proposed  to  his  mind  as  a  goal, 
draw  the  individual  on  to  attainment.  The  ideal  is  a 
standard  tinged  with  emotion,  able  to  provide  both 
the  vision  which  inspires  and  the  social  mirror  in  which 
the  personal  self  is  admired  or  scorned. 

Whence  are  ideals  derived  ?  They  spring  up  natu- 
rally whenever  men  make  common  cause  together,  and, 
viewed  in  their  most  far-reaching  and  general  aspects, 
are  a  product  of  the  milieu.  Society  is  the  great 
artificer,  overhauling  codes,  modifying  customs,  shaping 
ideals,   all   in  her   own   interest.     In  her   attempt   to 

3l6 


THE  APPEAL  OF  IDEALS  217 

realize  perpetuity,  she  lays  hold  of  certain  desired  types 
of  conduct,  soldier  courage,  nurse  tenderness,  mother 
love,  judge  sternness,  minister  compassion,  and  exalts 
them  for  admiration  and  imitation.  Note,  for  instance, 
how  the  soldier  ideal,  embracing  such  difficult  elements 
as  courage,  endurance,  fidehty,  and  self-sacrifice,  is 
impressed  upon  men.  Everywhere  this  desired  type  is 
glorified  by  literature,  applauded  at  banquet  table  and 
parade,  reverenced  by  religion,  honored  by  monuments, 
statues,  festivals,  and  commemorations.  Whereas 
all  disparagement  of  the  soldier,  the  cruelties,  hard- 
ships, agonies,  and  harassments  he  both  inflicts  and 
endures,  is  restrained,  the  adventurous,  dramatic,  and 
picturesque  elements  are  flashed  before  the  dazzled  eye ; 
soldier  worth  is  emphasized  on  the  most  momentous  and 
solemn  occasions,  and  associated  with  all  that  is  beau- 
tiful and  holy.^  A  set  of  values  as  to  what  is  worthy 
is  thus  minted.  It  after  a  time  comes  to  be  accepted 
as  true  coin  of  the  realm ;  all  of  us,  children  especially, 
being  taught  to  take  it  without  discounting. 

This  is  true  not  only  of  the  soldier  but  of  the  physi- 
cian, the  priest,  the  railroader ;  in  fact,  the  various  voca- 
tions, the  sexes,  the  classes,  all  possess  ideals.  Gener- 
alized into  abstract  types  they  constitute  the  moral 
virtues.^  Conformity  to  them  insures  self-respect, 
disobedience  brings  shame.  In  a  most  subtle  way, 
therefore,  idealism  offers  both  rose  and  thorn.  Its  ap- 
peal, voiced  by  leaders,  has  shown  a  capacity  to  exalt 
duty  rather  than  privilege,  evaluate  honor  higher  than 
victory,  emphasize  motive  as  well  as  result,  set  at  naught 
the  easy  doctrine  of  expediency,  make  stern  justice  more 
attractive  than  the  goddess  of  goods,  and  wean  men 
from  the  luring  bowers  of  self-interest  to  become  toilers 
for  the  common  welfare. 

^  Ross,  Soc.  Con.,  223-224.  •  Ross,  op.  cit.,  226,  235. 


2i8  IDEALISM 

Idealism  is  no  mere  azure  haze,  but  a  reality  based 
solidly  upon  the  collective  struggle  for  existence.  In 
this  struggle,  efficient  group  action  makes  for  survival. 
Accordingly,  qualities  which  whet  men  for  effort,  such 
as  courage,  industry,  ambition,  and  perseverance,  espe- 
cially for  cooperative  effort,  such  as  forbearance,  obe- 
dience, and  service,  have  all  been  stamped  approved  by 
successful  group  after  group  in  this  world-old  struggle. 
Products  of  the  common  consciousness,  group  ways  of 
looking  at  things,  standards  emotionalized,  social  ideals 
in  an  imperious  way  guide  the  destiny  of  the  race. 

Does  it  not  seem  that  the  executive,  whether  he  deal 
with  men  in  factory,  commercial  club,  or  church  brother- 
hood, should  not  cease  to  use  and  cultivate  this  idealistic 
streak  in  human  nature?  Each  man,  drawing  from  the 
common  stock  of  ideals,  has  through  them  an  inner  mo- 
tivating force,  and  this  force  can  be  stupidly  opposed 
or  wisely  taken  advantage  of  by  him  who  directs.  But 
more  than  this,  ideals  are  in  themselves  a  normal  growth, 
some  sort,  good  or  ill,  evolving  whenever  men  associate 
in  organizations  together.  This  opportimity  the  execu- 
tive will  embrace,  for  the  good  of  his  organization 
becoming  a  shaper  of  ideals. 

PHASES  OF  IDEALISM 

In  what  may,  perhaps,  be  termed  its  primary  form, 
idealism  rests  upon  the  ground  of  common  economic 
interest.  Such  appeal  may  no  doubt  appear  crude  — 
"  give  more,  get  more  "  —  nevertheless  it  is  strong.  A 
typical  example  is  profit  sharing,  the  essential  difference 
here  being,  as  compared  with  the  usual  methods  of  pay- 
ment, that  part  of  the  individual's  reward  is  directly  condi- 
tioned by  the  prosperity  of  the  company.  Since  his 
personal  prosperity  to  this  extent  rises  and  falls  with 


PROFIT  SHARING  219 

that  of  the  group  to  which  he  belongs,  he  tends  to  be 
mindful  of  the  general  interest,  making  his  own  efforts 
more  productive  and  keeping  a  watchful  eye  upon 
others. 

From  such  a  plan,  one  might  reasonably  expect,  would 
issue  a  transformation  in  industry;  and  such,  in  fact, 
has  been  the  result  in  certain  instances.  Its  numerous 
failures  may  be  traced,  it  would  seem,  to  industry's 
being  subject  to  fluctuations,  which  change  the  amoimt 
of  total  profit  and  hence  premiums  distributed ;  to  the 
financial  operations'  being  intricate  or  secret,  perhaps 
under  present  conditions  necessarily  so,  which  to  the 
common  man  places  premium  on  faith,  not  fact ;  and  to 
the  fact  that  whereas  the  workmen's  standard  of  living 
is  advanced  readily,  once  raised  it  tends  to  be  lowered 
only  under  pressure. 

At  any  rate,  the  ideal  of  mutuality  has  made  steady 
progress  during  the  last  decade  and  now  manifests  itself 
in  a  great  variety  of  efforts.  Social  insurance,  pensions, 
museums  of  safety,  Ubraries,  housing  and  recreation 
facilities,  cooperative  discipline,  and  profit-sharing  indi- 
cate that  the  relations  of  capital  and  labor  have  become 
more  sympathetic,  and  a  new  spirit  moves  in  industry. 

A  higher  type  of  idealism  does  not  rest  with  mutuality, 
but  involves  subordination  to  that  which  is  regarded  as 
superior  to  self.  This  commonly  results  whenever  men 
associate  on  good  terms  together.  Each  puts  forward 
the  kindly  word,  the  cheery  smile,  the  optimistic  ex- 
terior, cramping  into  hidden  nook  his  private  griefs  and 
bravely  claiming,  "  All  is  well."  There  thus  emerges  a 
collective  consciousness  higher  than  that  of  the  individ- 
uals who  compose  it  and  to  which  they  yield  obedient 
service. 

From  the  difficulty  of  visuaKzing  the  individual 
members  of  a  group,  especially  if  this  group  be  large, 


220  IDEALISM 

there  by  and  by  emerges  a  somewhat  abstract  con- 
sciousness —  spirit  of  cooperation  in  the  business  house, 
college  spirit  of  the  student  body,  esprit  de  corps  of  a  regi- 
ment, civic  pride  in  a  city,  patriotism  in  a  nation,  zeal 
of  the  theocratic  devotee.  Mere  ideas?  True,  but 
lively  ideas,  images  that  stimulate.  The  war  spirit, 
roused  by  the  attack  on  Sumter  in  '6i,  augmented  by 
burning  sermons  from  pulpits,  military  proclamations 
and  orders  in  every  paper,  radiant  bunting  and  brass 
bands  in  every  city,  war  speeches  and  war  appropria- 
tions in  every  legislature  and  every  city  or  town  council, 
stirred  the  North  until  every  village  green  was  a  muster- 
ing ground,  peaceful  foundries  and  workshops  com- 
menced casting  guns  or  making  cartridges,  and  parades, 
drums,  flags,  and  bayonets  filled  the  streets.  Ours  was 
a  people  devoted  to  an  ideal  not  dimmed  though  four 
years  of  blood  must  intervene. 

Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity,  a  magical  formula 
underlying  one  great  popular  movement  after  another, 
during  the  French  Revolution  turned  its  adherents  into 
preachers  and  propagandists,  passionate  proselyters  of 
foreigners,  and  convinced  its  leaders  that,  supported 
by  the  Almighty,  the  Republic  had  been  decreed  since 
the  beginning  of  time.  The  theocratic  ideal  nerved  the 
Boers  through  long  years  of  fruitless  strife,  intense  po- 
litical faith  in  our  own  day  has  caused  hardened  politi- 
cians with  bared  heads  to  sing  "  Onward,  Christian 
Soldiers,"  ^  and  socialism  by  many  of  its  followers  is 

^The  Roosevelt  convention  at  Chicago  was  thus  commented  upon 
by  the  New  York  Times. 

"Let  no  one  mistake  the  Progressive  Party.  Theodore  Roosevelt 
may  or  may  not  be  bitten  by  personal  ambition,  but  the  men  who  are 
following  him  believe  sincerely  that  they  are  followers  of  the  Lord  en- 
listed for  the  battle  of  Armageddon.  They  may  be  absolutely  wrong 
about  it,  but  about  the  strength  of  their  conviction  there  cannot  remain 
a  doubt  in  the  mind  of  anybody  who  saw  the  strange,  moving,  and  com- 


THE  USE  OF  IDEALS  221 

being  stripped  of  all  economic  details  and  embraced 
as  a  new  religion.  It  is  hard  to  withstand  men  so 
possessed. 

An  ideal  is  a  standard,  plus  emotion.  As  is  indicated 
by  the  above,  these  two  elements  may  be  compounded 
in  varying  proportions.  The  workman  who  prods  his 
listless  neighbor  because  he  feels  that  good  application 
on  the  latter's  part  will  mean  a  few  cents  added  to  his 
own  pay  check,  may  represent  one  extreme  in  this  com- 
pounding, the  rational  element  predominating  very 
nearly  imto  selfishness;  the  other  extreme,  perhaps,  is 
the  zealot  enraptured  by  some  such  vision  as  God's 
rules  on  earth,  a  conception  thoroughly  emotionalized. 
Between  these  extremes  are  all  possible  gradations,  and 
it  is  for  the  executive  to  decide  which  proportion  of  each 
element  serves  him  best. 

EFFECTIVE   IDEALISM 

As  a  practical  policy,  the  efficiency  of  idealism,  par- 
ticularly in  its  higher  phases,  is  conditioned^  by  the 
following  factors : 

I.  Enlisting  the  Imagination.  —  In  multiplying  effort 
manyfold,  the  imagination  plays  a  royal  role.  An  indi- 
cation, a  vague  hint,  is  a  stimulus  to  thought,  the 
initiator  of  completed  scenes.  The  imaginative  appeal 
carves  out  bold  headlines,  with  strokes  that  rouse  the 
mind  to  supply  its  own  details.  The  leader  with  a  flash 
of  wit,  a  stirring  phrase,  a  brilliant  generalization,  a 

pelling  spectacle  in  the  Coliseum  to-day.  It  was  not  a  convention  at 
all.  It  was  an  assemblage  of  religious  enthusiasts.  It  was  such  a  con- 
vention as  Peter  the  Hermit  held.  It  was  a  Methodist  camp  meeting 
done  over  into  political  terms.  From  Jane  Addams  of  Hull  House  fame, 
sitting  in  the  first  rank  below  the  platform,  to  Judge  Ben  Lindsay  of 
Denver,  sitting  halfway  down  the  hall,  there  was  an  expression  on  every 
face  of  fanatical  and  religious  enthusiasm." 


22a  IDEALISM 

dazzling  prophecy,  evokes  imagery ;  and  followers,  pos- 
sessed of  this,  love  to  do  the  rest.^ 

2,  Right  Adjustment  of  Ideals. — An  ideal  too  distant 
loses  its  power  to  draw;  too  near,  is  commonplace. 
There  is,  in  consequence,  some  point  at  which  for  any 
particular  individual  or  situation  its  effectiveness  reaches 
maximum,  and  it  is  the  executive's  practical  problem  to 
locate  this. 

In  his  own  mind  Daniel  Burnham  saw  beautiful  visions 
of  cities  to  be ;  his  supreme  gift  lay  not  in  these  but  in 
visualizing  them  in  most  practical  terms  for  the  big 
men  of  his  day.  A  certain  well-known  president  of  an 
agricultural  college,  a  born  ideaUst,  enthuses  over  the 
wonders  of  the  rural  life  that  is  to  come;  but  he,  too, 
along  with  panegyrics  concerning  "  God's  great  out-of- 
doors,"  has  much  to  say  of  improved  drainage,  crop 
rotation,  and  commercial  fertilizer. 

Ideals  may  thus  reach  from  the  most  prosaic  up  to  the 
azure  heights.     Followers  may  lay  hold  where  they  will. 

J.  Expectation.  —  One  who  rules  through  idealism 
usually  is  characterized  by  enthusiastic  expectation. 
He  represents  the  onward  flowing,  upward  striving  as- 
pects of  life,  faith  in  the  possibility  of  great  accomplish- 
ment. The  clear-eyed  scientist  may  disprove  his 
assumptions  at  every  step,   the  philosophic  pessimist 

^  Chairman  Beveridge  at  the  Chicago  convention  aroused  outbursts 
of  approval  by  his  statement:  "We  stand  for  a  nobler  America.  We 
stand  for  an  undivided  nation."  The  details  which  a  little  later  he 
attempted  to  present  proved  boring.  Such  would  especially  be  the  case 
in  a  fervent  group  such  as  the  Progressives  were.  Still,  the  President 
in  his  inaugural  showed  judgment  in  besprinkling  his  brief  address  with 
such  image-provoking  gems  as:  "This  is  the  high  enterprise  of  the  new 
day:  to  lift  everything  that  concerns  our  life  as  a  nation  to  the  light 
that  shines  from  the  hearthfire  of  every  man's  conscience  and  vision  of 
the  right.  .  .  .  The  feelings  with  which  we  face  this  new  age  of  right 
and  opportunity  sweep  across  our  heartstrings  like  some  air  out  of  God's 
own  presence,  where  justice  and  mercy  are  reconciled  and  the  judge  and 
the  brother  are  one." 


EXPECTANCY  APPEALS  223 

readily  points  out  that  his  ends  are  chimeras;  yet  the 
world  of  men,  nevertheless,  continues  to  belong  to  the 
man  of  hope.  All  great  periods  of  revival,  of  expansion 
of  the  human  mind,  especially  those  outbursts  of  intel- 
lectual and  moral  vigor  ushered  in  by  Jesus,  Luther, 
Wesley,  Rousseau,  Fichte,  Carlyle,  have  been  based 
upon  the  appeal  that  ourselves  and  the  highest  are 
linked  together,  that  Gk)d  and  man  may  be  bound  into 
one.  Those  who  deny  this,  who  would  close  the  channels 
to  these  inherent  and  powerful  tendencies  in  human 
nature,  cannot  hope  to  triiunph.^  Mankind  is  moving 
forward. 

Even  failure  so-called  does  not  disprove  the  value  of 
expectation.  The  street  sweeper  possibly  is  not  the 
great  public  benefactor  the  commissioner  believes  him 
to  be,  the  convict  is  doubtless  pictured  far  too  favorably 
by  the  generous  warden,  the  struggling  little  college 
fails  to  secure  the  enrollment  and  endowment  prophesied 
by  its  president,  the  convert  may  later  prove  the  evan- 
gelist was  mistaken ;  the  results  do  not  measure  up  to 
fervent  expectation,  the  glow  departs,  the  promised 
land  becomes  dimmed  before  realization.  Neverthe- 
less, this  positive  faith  in  great  attainment  has  made 
the  real  attainment  surpass  what  otherwise  it  would 
have  been.  The  leader,  a  man  of  optimism,  enthusiasm, 
and  faith,  has  pointed  toward  the  heights  and  bade 
men  transcend  the  limitations  which  pure  reason  would 
dictate.  He  demands  much  and  gets  it.  Expectation 
justifies  itself  by  its  fruits. 

4,  Indirect  Control.  —  Idealism  is  usually  not  thought 
of  as  a  method  of  control ;  it  varies  so  widely  from  the 
ordinary  patterns  of  restraint.  Because  it  seeks  to 
develop  standards  and  emotionalize  them,  leaving  to 
these  the  securing  of  conduct,  its  approach,  in  fact,  is 
*  James,  Prin.  of  Psy.,  II,  314-315. 


224  IDEALISM 

somewhat  removed.  It  lacks  the  direct  swing,  the 
cramp,  the  crushing  triumph  over  miscreant  and  brute 
which  renders  discipline  so  powerful  an  engine  of  order. 
Yet  these  latter  may  not  necessarily  be  the  best  means 
of  securing  control;  they  readily  degenerate  and,  by 
prohibiting  free  inquiry,  criticism,  and  unhampered 
choice,  and  destroying  self-confidence,  render  those 
who  yield  ignorant  and  servile  men.  Control  is  gained, 
but  at  excessive  cost.^ 

The  other  method  seemingly  is  all  too  circuitous, 
—  to  attempt  controlling  salesmen,  for  instance,  by  lift- 
ing up  their  position,  telling  them  the  history  of  the 
company,  pointing  out  the  officials  who  have  climbed 
up  from  small  positions,  of  how  the  company  now  holds 
a  unique  place  in  the  world's  work  and  that  its  services 
to  society  are  indispensable ;  yet  such  a  process  implants 
an  ideal  whose  restraint,  however  indirect,  illusive,  and 
apparently  permitting  full  self-direction,  is  none  the 
less  real.  It,  moreover,  produces  subordinates  of  spirit, 
moral  strength,  and  manly  independence,  granite  upon 
which  an  organization  may  safely  build. 

5.  Enlightened  Partnership.  —  The  division  of  labor 
within  our  huge  commonwealth  has  in  a  most  subtle 
way  clipped  the  wings  of  idealism.  The  individual  has 
become  a  cog,  and  an  unseeing  cog  at  that.  "  As  sad  a 
sight  as  an  old  hand-loom  worker  in  a  factory  attempting 
to  make  his  clumsy  machine  compete  with  the  flying 
shuttles  about  him,"  says  Miss  Addams,  "  is  a  working 
man  equipped  with  knowledge  so  meager  that  he  can 
get  no  meaning  into  his  life  nor  sequence  between  his 
acts  and  the  far-off  results.  .  .  .  The  man  in  the  fac- 
tory, as  well  as  the  man  with  the  hoe,  has  a  grievance 
beyond  being  overworked  and  disinherited,  in  that  he 
does  not  know  what  it  is  all  about."  ^ 

*  Ross,  Soc.  Con.,  244.         *  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics,  212,  211. 


THE  VISION  WHICH  INSPIRES  225 

But  the  danger  is  wider  than  industry.  The  wage 
earner  may  year  after  year  make  numberless  twenty- 
fifths  of  a  shoe,  never  a  whole  one;  yet  business  men, 
professional  men,  transporters,  farmers,  and  miners 
likewise  have  their  hearts  and  minds  continually  focused 
upon  narrow  segments  of  the  social  life.  Unable  to 
visualize  the  teeming  millions  with  whose  welfare  every 
effort  of  theirs,  in  reality,  is  connected  up,  they,  too, 
isolated,  perish  for  want  of  vision. 

EnUghtened  partnership  is  needed  to  restore  the 
personal  connection  between  means  and  ends,  to  exalt 
the  individual  life  by  showing  how  in  every  act  one's 
influence  affects  the  entire  organization,  even  penetrates 
into  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth.  Such  partnership 
affords  unity,  the  sense  of  mechanical,  intellectual, 
moral,  and  spiritual  solidarity,  by  means  of  which  the 
lives  which  otherwise  might  be  lost  are  rounded  into 
fullness. 

6.  Self- Alignment.  —  In  the  process  of  action  and 
reaction,  idealism  transforms  not  subordinates  alone, 
but  executive  as  well.  Partaker  of  the  spirit  which 
animates  them,  controlled  by  the  same  standards  roimd 
which  they  rally,  he  necessarily  identifies  himself  and 
his  ambitions  with  the  welfare  of  the  movement  of  which 
he  is  a  part.  His  individual  personality  expands  to  its 
overpersonal  task,  that  of  serving  as  the  symbol  of  a 
cause.  When  a  regal  nature  is  thus  animated  by  con- 
tact with  the  universal,  selfish  interests  fade  and  joy  is 
found  in  service. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  are  men  of  idealistic  attitudes  preferred  by  industrial 
concerns? 

2.  Should  the  firm  practicing  profit  sharing  keep  its  books 
open  for  employee  inspection?  Should  workmen  share  losses 
the  same  as  profits? 

Q 


226  IDEALISM 

3.  Trace  the  development  of  professional  ethics  among  lawyers. 
Physicians.    Accountants. 

4.  Contrast  in  some  concrete  instance  the  control  of  men  by 
discipline  with  that  by  ideals. 

5.  Compare  the  methods  employed  by  Bismarck  as  chancellor 
with  those  of  Roosevelt  as  president. 

6.  Of  what  influence  upon  its  standards  is  the  growing  tend- 
ency toward  university  rather  than  office  training  for  the  pro- 
fessions? 

READINGS 

Ross,  Social  Control,  Chs.  XVII-XVIII. 
Roosevelt,  Autobiography,  Ch.  V. 


V 


CHAPTER  XrX 

Instruction 

"The  era  of  force  must  give  way  to  that  of  knowledge,  and  the 
policy  of  the  future  will  be  to  teach  and  to  lead." 

—  Henry  L.  Gantt. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  indicate  how  results 
may  be  secured  through  the  systematic  appeal  to  intelli- 
gence. This  process  is  somewhat  different  in  point  of 
view  and  much  more  narrow  in  scope  than  education  in 
general,  including  as  the  latter  does  such  remote  and 
comprehensive  ends  as  preparation  for  complete  living, 
character  building,  self -realization,  or  socialization.  In- 
struction, to  the  contrary,  consists  in  imparting  knowl- 
edge and  skill  methodically,  a  much  more  specific  task 
whose  functions  will  become  clearer  as  we  proceed. 

The  need  for  instruction  began  with  man's  origin,  and 
never  shall  cease  to  be  because  there  is  always  something 
to  teach  and  some  one  who  may  profit  thereby.  The 
something  to  teach,  moreover,  is  witnessing  a  wonderful 
expansion.  Valuable  data  concerning  railroading,  min- 
ing, business,  and  politics,  the  product  of  busy  brains  in 
office,  field,  factory,  and  laboratory,  are  accumulating. 
These  advance  steadily  out  from  book,  magazine, 
lecture,  convention,  wherever  on  the  firing  line  new 
thought  combinations  are  evolved.  It  is  perhaps  not 
too  much  to  say  that,  so  far  as  the  present  is  concerned, 
in  these  workable  ideas  is  revealed  the  promised  land. 

The  executives  of  a  past  generation  hoarded  well  their 
trade  secrets.  Only  trusted  employees  knew  much  about 
the  general  processes  of  manufacturing  and  selling,  while 

227 


338  INSTRUCTION 

the  knowledge  of  special  processes  and  plans  was  retained 
by  the  head  of  the  firm  and  by  him  bequeathed  as  a 
family  inheritance.  The  chief  assets,  in  fact,  often 
consisted  in  this  knowledge  held  in  secret.  Such  a  view 
is  now  rapidly  disappearing,  necessarily  so  because 
industry  and  commerce  are  passing  the  one-man  stage. 
In  manufacturing,  the  single-proprietor  establishments 
now  employ  only  twelve  per  cent  of  the  American  wage 
earners  and  produce  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  our  total 
product ;  corporations  employ  six  times  the  number  of 
workmen  and  manufacture  seventy-nine  per  cent  of 
the  total  output.  Due  to  the  fact  of  this  collective 
production,  men's  interests  are  bound  together;  the 
executive  is  obliged  to  explain  his  plans,  for  other  men 
must  be  intrusted  to  work  them  out.  And  it  thus 
becomes  increasingly  true  that  he  succeeds  best  who 
teaches  best. 

It  is  perhaps  to  be  expected  that  the  statesman  will 
educate  the  people  to  his  way  of  thinking ;  at  least  from 
the  ancient  Egj^ptian  monarch,  Ptah  Hotep,  to  the 
candidate  in  the  most  recent  "  educational  campaign  " 
this  seems  to  have  been  an  approved  course  of  procedure ; 
that  the  editor,  the  physician,  and  the  preacher  also  will 
adopt  some  systematic  means  in  molding  the  minds  of 
their  adherents,  and  in  so  doing  will  assume  somewhat 
the  functions  of  a  teacher.  But  in  industry  and  com- 
merce as  well,  it  is  being  recognized  increasingly  that 
the  welfare  of  their  organizations  is  similarly  connected 
up  with  instruction.  In  fact,  it  is  coming  to  be  less  a 
question  of  whether  or  not  it  should  be  done,  as  how 
best  to  do  it. 

FORMS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

This  transmission  of  knowledge,  once  executives 
definitely  seek  to  accomplish  it,  may  be  effected  in  a 


INSTRUCTION  PLANS  229 

variety  of  ways.^  The  following  cases  will  serve 
as  types.  The  First  National  Bank  of  Chicago 
provides  a  library,  a  speciaKzed  collection  of  books, 
almanacs,  and  magazines  treating  of  banking  and 
finance.  An  industrial  concern,  the  Weston  Electrical 
Instrument  Works,  for  its  library  has  secured  in  addi- 
tion to  standard  reference  works  many  volumes  and 
periodicals  which  relate  to  machinery,  engineering,  and 
electricity.  A  number  of  the  employees,  their  interest 
in  things  industrial  being  stimulated  by  this  library,  are 
taking  courses  in  the  Newark  Technical  School  or  in 
correspondence  schools.  So  far  has  this  library  move- 
ment now  won  its  way,  that  in  visiting  important  con- 
cerns here  and  there  one  is  agreeably  surprised  at  the 
frequency  with  which  he  may  discover  a  modest  yet 
growing  collection  of  books  and  bound  volumes  of  trade 
journals.  It  is  a  practical  method  and,  with  the  devel- 
opment of  a  specialized  literature,  bound  to  increase. 

The  wholesalers  and  retailers  of  Boston  cooperated 
to  provide  lectures  on  salesmanship.  Various  firm 
members  addressed  the  class;  in  connection  with  the 
addresses  demonstrations  being  given.  More  commonly 
individual  concerns  have  lecturers  appear  before  their 
own  employees,  the  subjects  selected  being  those  of  most 
direct  benefit  and  the  address  frequently  being  printed 
and  distributed.  Even  a  limited  number  of  these,  pre- 
sented by  men  able  both  to  instruct  and  inspire,  will 
fill  subordinates'  minds  with  the  student  atmosphere. 

The  American  Radiator  Company  publishes  a  bulletin 
distributed  gratis  to  employees,  its  purpose  being  to 
promote  a  broad  knowledge  of  the  company's  business, 

1  Cf.  Tolman,  Social  Engineering,  Ch.  IX,  for  illustrations.  The 
Bulletins  and  Annual  Reports  of  the  National  Association  of  Corporation 
Schools,  124  W.  42d  Street,  New  York  City,  are  of  special  value  in  this 
connection. 


230  INSTRUCTION 

and  by  expanding  personal  capacity  to  increase  oppor- 
tunity for  all  members  of  the  organization.  This  bulle- 
tin is  by  no  means  merely  of  the  "  ginger  up  "  or  the 
"  uplift  "  sort  into  which  so  many  promising  publica- 
tions have  degenerated.  While  it  does  contain  articles 
making  for  inspiration,  closer  mutual  interest,  and  good 
fellowship,  it  presents  also  much  matter-of-fact  instruc- 
tion. Less  pretentious  than  such  bulletins,  yet  still 
serving  educational  purposes,  are  the  booklets,  pam- 
phlets, circulars,  outlines,  and  sermonettes,  with  which 
organizations  here  and  there  are  informing  and  train- 
ing their  members.  Though  it  be  the  elaborate  report 
of  a  technical  investigation  issued  by  an  automobile 
manufacturer,  or  again  only  a  motto,  "  The  voice  with 
the  smile  wins,''  distributed  by  a  telephone  company, 
the  purpose,  that  of  instructing  subordinates  by  means 
of  printed  material,  is  realized. 

The  National  Cash  Register  Company  utilizes  trips 
as  a  means  of  educating  its  employees.  During  the 
World's  Fair  at  St.  Louis  it  shut  down  the  factory  for 
two  weeks  in  order  that  its  making  and  recording  forces, 
two  thousand  two  hundred  in  number,  with  a  generous 
percentage  of  their  expenses  paid,  might  enjoy  the 
imique  advantages  there  afforded.  Later  the  company 
sent  on  a  European  trip  a  party  of  sixteen,  nine  of  them 
being  chief  officials  at  headquarters,  five  district  man- 
agers, and  two  factory  experts.  Similar  trips  are  made 
to  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston,  or  to  manufacturing 
centers  like  Pittsburgh,  the  parties  varying  from  half  a 
dozen  to  twenty.  Trips,  of  course,  are  only  one  of  sev- 
eral methods  employed  by  this  progressive  organization, 
but  it  finds  these  of  value ;  conditions  are  studied,  view- 
points broadened,  and  many  suggestions  brought  back 
for  the  betterment  of  machine  and  methods. 

The  girls  at  the  Plymouth  Cordage  Company's  mill 


COMPANY  SCHOOLS  231 

formed  a  club  several  years  since,  the  members  then 
numbering  eight  or  ten.  The  primary  purpose  was 
social,  but  the  members  promptly  started  work  in  sewing, 
courses  in  English,  Italian,  and  art,  and  so  successfully 
pushed  these  various  activities  that  the  membership  has 
increased  some  tenfold.  Much  the  same  result  has  be^n 
accomplished  by  the  woman's  league  at  Wanamaker's. 
Once  a  month  this  league  holds  a  social  evening,  with 
a  lecture,  reading,  or  music,  time  for  sociability,  and 
dancing;  and  at  other  times  classes  are  carried  on  for 
chorus  singing,  mandolin  pla)dng,  physical  culture, 
dancing,  sewing,  English,  German,  and  French.  Such 
volimtary  organizations  as  these  indicate  that  em- 
ployees, quite  in  harmony  with  the  aims  of  their  execu- 
tives, are  anxious  for  self-improvement. 

The  New  York  Edison  Company  maintains  a  school^ 
this  being  the  most  serious  of  the  various  measures  of 
instruction.  This  company  offers  five  courses  in  elec- 
trical engineering,  one  course  in  accoimting,  and  seven 
courses  in  salesmanship.  These  latter  courses,  held 
during  working  hours,  are  compulsory  for  all  employees 
of  the  commercial  department.  The  first-year  courses 
for  new  employees  treat  of  the  history  and  development 
of  electricity,  including  inspection  trips  to  the  central 
stations,  substations,  and  meter-testing  laboratory, 
elements  of  central  station  business  getting,  principles 
of  individual  efficiency,  business  letter  writing,  and  public 
speaking.  The  second-year  courses,  open  only  to  those 
who  have  completed  the  first-year  courses,  give  instruc- 
tion in  hygiene,  health,  recreation,  and  psychology,  the 
principles  of  salesmanship  and  their  relation  to  business 
building,  and  company  policy  and  organization.  Exam- 
inations are  given,  and  satisfactory  work  wins  a  diploma.^ 

*  Outline  of  Educational  Courses  for  1913-1914,  New  York  Edison 
Company. 


232  INSTRUCTION 

The  Union  Pacific  Railroad  offers  through  its  Educa- 
tional Bureau  various  courses,  such  as  mechanical 
engineering,  signal  work,  transportation,  traffic,  main- 
tenance of  way,  civil  engineering,  agents'  courses,  air- 
brake course,  locomotive  firing,  and  locomotive  running. 
Says  General  Superintendent  Park :  "  The  men  take 
to  the  scheme  —  it  is  something  they  have  long  wanted. 
In  the  three  months  since  the  bureau  was  established 
over  500  students  have  been  enrolled,  all  earnestly  press- 
ing their  special  work  to  the  extent  that  success  is 
assured."  ^ 

A  beginner  everywhere,  perhaps,  whether  he  be  the 
newly  engaged  office  boy  or  the  just-promoted  general 
manager,  is  given  certain  instructions  as  to  what  is 
expected.  Now  in  reahty,  libraries,  lectures,  bulle- 
tins, trips,  clubs,  and  schools,  including  variations  and 
combinations  of  these  worked  out  to  meet  particular 
needs,  represent  merely  attempts  to  make  these  direc- 
tions more  effective. 

WHAT  SHALL  BE  TAUGHT 

But  in  what  does  this  effectiveness  consist?  Is  it 
knowledge,  discipline,  power,  or  some  other  of  the 
numerous  aims  which  teachers  at  different  times  have 
set  for  their  guidance  and  toward  which  they  have 
urged  learners?  At  the  outset  it  may  be  urged  that 
there  is  nothing  inherently  worth  while  in  instruction 
as  an  end  in  itself.  "  Man's  business  here,"  observes 
Frederic  Harrison,  "is  to  know  for  the  sake  of  living, 
not  to  live  for  the  sake  of  knowing."  Of  all  this  accu- 
mulated wisdom,  chemical  practice  in  the  laboratory,  office 
practice  in  the  insurance  company,  buying  practice  in 

1  J.  S.  Eaton,  Education  for  Efficiency  in  Railroad  Service,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  Bulletin  10,  1909,  96-97. 


STANDARDIZATION  233 

the  wholesale  concern,  man  management  in  the  selling 
organization,  are  not  certain  parts  as  compared  with 
others  particularly  helpful  and  hence  more  worth  know- 
ing for  the  sake  of  living? 

They  are.  This  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
knowledge  is  systematized.  In  this  process,  details 
are  classified  and  grouped  under  subheads,  subheads 
are  fitted  into  larger  units,  and  at  last  is  reared  that  vast 
pyramid  of  organized  knowledge  termed  science.  The 
winnowings  of  the  centuries  are  evolved  into  general 
truths.  Into  them  have  been  distilled  myriads  of  facts ; 
from  them  may  be  drawn  aid  in  solving  multitudes  of 
detail  difficulties.  The  goal  of  instruction,  therefore, 
is  to  teach  these  general  truths  and  their  application 
to  concrete  problems.  Instruction  is  effective  in  so  far 
as  it  does  this. 

The  first  requirement  of  instruction,  therefore,  is  that 
there  be  properly  systematized  material.  Unless  this 
requirement  be  met  the  teacher  sinks  into  an  im- 
parter  of  unrelated  details,  a  blind  leader  of  the  blind. 
Of  what  worth  to  the  apprentice  are  the  teachings  of  the 
chief  whose  own  efforts  are  based  upon  merest  guess- 
work; and  is  not  a  most  serious  instructional  obstacle 
found  in  the  fact  that  as  yet  over  vast  stretches  of  our 
industrial  system  men  are  tramping  without  compass, 
the  one  best  way  having  not  yet  been  found  ? 

Certain  pioneer  attempts  have  been  made  to  remedy 
this  difficulty.  The  work  done  assumes  a  significance 
far  surpassing  the  apparent  value  of  the  facts  discovered, 
since  the  result  of  chief  importance  lies  in  the  new 
point  of  view  furnished.  The  belief  is  centuries  old 
that,  in  astronomy,  physics,  or  mathematics,  general 
laws  are  the  summum  honum;  only  very  recently  in 
industry  has  been  recognized  the  possibility  of  sup- 
planting rule-of-thiunb  by  standardization.      Frederick 


234  INSTRUCTION 

W.  Taylor  spent  twenty-six  years  studying  how  best 
to  cut  metals,  attacking  the  two  questions,  at  what  cut- 
ting depth  shall  the  lathe  be  run,  and  at  what  speed  shall 
it  be  set,  and  in  some  30,000  to  40,000  experiments  he 
cut  into  chips  with  the  experimental  tools  more  than 
800,000  pounds  of  steel  and  iron.^  Frank  B.  Gilbreth 
studied  the  motions  made  by  bricklayers  in  getting  a 
brick  from  where  the  tenders  left  it  until  it  was  mortared 
into  the  wall,  devised  various  schemes,  such  as  having 
the  bricks  brought  to  the  mason  in  a  different  way  than 
usual,  placing  them  in  a  somewhat  more  convenient 
position,  arranging  the  scaffold  in  an  improved  manner, 
by  means  of  which  the  number  of  motions  required  was 
cut  down  from  eighteen  to  four  and  one  half .^  The 
editor  of  Industrial  Engineering,  interested  in  this  new 
science  of  motion  study,  developed  an  arrangement  of 
materials  and  sequence  of  motion  through  which  the 
girls  folding  and  sealing  letters  in  his  of&ce  increased 
their  output  four  times. ^ 

A  Chicago  real  estate  dealer  in  his  correspondence 
similarly  worked  toward  standardization.  Through  care- 
ful analysis  of  inquiries  he  was  enabled  to  classify 
them  and  draw  up  a  series  of  form  letters  which  simpli- 
fied his  work  without  loss  in  effectiveness.  A  Detroit 
advertiser  for  several  years  has  so  carefully  keyed  his 
advertising  and  recorded  the  inquiries  received  that  he 
is  now  able  to  estimate  with  fair  accuracy  the  "  pull " 
of  his  different  copy."*  The  Curtis  Publishing  Company 
during  the  past  three  years  reduced  its  stenographic  cost 
from  $7.69  to  $2.58  per  thousand  square  inches  of  type- 
written matter,  at  the  same  time  advancing  wages  from 
$9  to  $11  per  week;  in  other  words,  increasing  the  de- 

*  Taylor,  Principles  of  Scientific  Management,  105-106. 

*  Gilbreth,  Motion  Study,  88.    See  also  chart,  107. 

*  Op.  cit.,  xiv.  *  Shryer,  Analytical  Advertising. 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  235 

partment's  efficiency,  based  upon  these  two  tests,  by 
about  two  hundred  per  cent.^ 

But  the  Curtis  Publishing  Company,  in  common 
with  these  other  concerns  mentioned,  recognized  the 
necessity  of  basing  effort  upon  systematized  material. 
The  management  studied  the  methods  in  practice,  ana- 
lyzed and  classified  them,  eliminated  the  faults  which 
heretofore  had  been  either  unobserved  or  deliberately 
neglected,  and  embodied  the  approved  methods  and 
directions  in  textbook  form.  A  school  was  instituted 
in  which,  with  these  textbooks  as  a  basis,  the  routine 
of  the  office  was  explained  in  detail.  Every  mechanical 
operation,  the  insertion  of  a  sheet  of  paper  in  a  type- 
writer, the  arrangement  of  the  desk  drawer,  even  such 
elementary  operations  as  making  erasures,  ruling  lines  in 
ink,  and  the  making  of  figures,  has  been  studied,  analyzed, 
and  the  one  best  way  discovered  that  it  may  be  prac- 
ticed by  every  office  worker. 

These  examples,  indicating  how  industrial  and  com- 
mercial concerns  in  the  most  painstaking  way  have 
developed  a  standard  practice,  emphasize  a  point  of 
view  valuable  to  every  executive.  The  one  best  way,  it 
is  true,  is  known  accurately  only  in  the  most  limited 
fields,  yet  its  spirit  at  least  should  permeate  all  attempts 
at  leadership.  Especially  is  this  true  of  all  great  popular 
movements,  in  the  initial  stages  of  which  there  is  almost 
certain  to  be  more  heat  than  light.  Brass  bands,  ream 
upon  ream  of  speeches,  the  parade,  and  the  banquet 
proclaim  that  salvation,  figuratively  speaking,  is  at 
hand.  It  is  the  task  of  the  wise  leader  to  see  that  out 
of  the  confusion  after  a  time  emerge  certain  central 
truths,  a  more  or  less  accurate  standard  practice.  The 
movement  then  becomes  effective,  teachable.  The  first 
requirement  of  instruction  has  been  met. 

*  System,  October,  1913,  390-397. 


236  INSTRUCTION 


EFFECTIVE  TEACHING 

The  matter  to  be  taught  having  been  properly  pre- 
pared, the  point  of  view  now  shifts  toward  the  learner. 
How  may  he  best  apprehend  these  general  principles 
and  become  able  to  use  them  with  effectiveness?  By 
experiencing  their  growth  within  his  own  mind,  a  process 
analogous  to  their  original  development.  There  are 
no  mysterious  short  cuts  to  knowledge.  The  mind  to 
be  taught  must  retrace  the  same  path  by  which  the  gen- 
eralization was  reached,  even  though  under  skilled 
instruction  the  pace  is  immensely  accelerated.  This 
necessity  gives  to  teaching  three  main  processes  which 
may  now   receive  brief   consideration.^ 

I.  The  Acquiring  of  Details.  —  A  new  idea  creates  in 
the  mind  very  much  the  same  impression  as  does  the 
stranger  arriving  at  the  lawn  party  —  there  is  need  for 
mutual  adjustment.  Now  this  adjustment  is  more 
rapid  if  in  teaching  one  proceeds  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown,  and,  aided  by  the  self-activity  of  the  learner, 
welds  this  new  to  the  old.  By  calling  up  in  his  mind 
all  the  related  ideas  possible  a  foundation  is  prepared 
for  the  new  material.  By  giving  him  an  aim,  a  concrete, 
definite,  simple,  short,  and  attractive  statement  of  what 
is  to  be  undertaken,  he  will  be  enlisted  in  the  building 
process.  The  material  of  instruction  having  been 
gathered,  it  is  now  to  be  provided  as  needed  by  the 
teacher  or  demonstrator,  the  learners  in  this  case  being 
considered  as  interested  onlookers;  or  perhaps  this 
material  is  presented  by  the  printed  page,  it  fulfilling 
the  function  of  a  text ;  or  in  part  it  may  come  from  the 
learners    themselves,    stimulated    and    directed  by  the 

1  This  view  is  based  upon  the  well-known  Herbartian  Formal  Steps. 
For  an  illuminating  discussion  see  McMurry,  Method  of  the  Recitatiotif 
especially  Chs.  vi-ix. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  237 

instructor.  The  process  in  any  case  is  one  of  transferring 
mental  materials.  As  a  result  of  it,  through  questions, 
vivid  pictures,  repetitions,  and  reviews,  indelible  images 
become  stamped  upon  the  mind.  The  details  are  ac- 
quired. 

2.  The  Development  of  Generalizations.  —  Important 
as  details  are,  their  real  function  is  to  serve  as  crude 
materials  for  the  construction  of  general  truths.  It 
is  these  general  truths  which  give  freedom  and  impetus 
to  thought  and  adequate  means  for  its  expression; 
which  signify  a  good  classification  of  one's  knowledge, 
an  organization  of  thought  which  renders  facts  easily 
retained,  readily  surveyed,  and  quickly  produced  in  the 
moment  of  need;  and  which  provide  an  apperceiving 
mass,  able  to  assimilate  new  knowledge  easily  and  quickly, 
a  chart  and  compass  with  which  the  thinker  steers 
through  confused  regions  without  losing  his  bearings. 
The  learning  process  is  poorly  organized  which  stops 
short  of  these. 

The  process  of  induction  rests  upon  a  comparison  of 
different  bits  of  concrete  data,  the  noting  of  recurring 
phenomena,  and  the  stating  of  these  as  generalizations. 
The  full  triumph  of  science  demands  that  these  general- 
izations be  all-embracing,  that  a  systematized  universe 
be  set  forth  in  shorthand  symbols.  Yet  any  approach 
to  this  ideal  involves  a  certain  simplification,  in  which, 
from  our  present  relative  point  of  view,  success  is  met 
because  details  are  handled  in  packages. 

J.  The  Application  to  Concrete  Problems. — The  learn- 
ing process  is  not  complete  until  the  knowledge  gained 
becomes  usable  in  practice.  Generalizations  constitute 
the  theory,  but  no  real  antagonism  exists  between  theory 
and  practice,  the  two  in  reality  being  intimate  co-workers, 
—  at  bottom,  only  different  phases  of  the  same  thing. 
Hence  induction  and  deduction  are  as  normally  insep- 


238  INSTRUCTION 

arable  as  systole  and  diastole.  Concrete  experiences 
are  builded  into  general  notions,  general  notions  in  turn 
are  applied  to  new  concretes. 

It  is  in  this  last  step  particularly  that  public  educa- 
tion is  lamentably  weak.  Its  students  possess  much 
theory,  but  flounder  in  the  realm  of  actuality.  They 
discern  little  connection  between  the  principles  taught 
in  school  and  the  practical  difficulties  they  face ;  in  many 
instances  the  break  between  school  life  and  real  life  being 
never  bridged. 

But  in  this  respect  the  instruction  furnished  by 
department  store  manager,  railroad  executive,  or  politi- 
cal leader  is  particularly  strong.  Its  details  are  usually 
poorly  presented,  its  general  notions  are  apt  to  be  unde- 
veloped and  hazily  held,  yet  every  link  in  the  chain  has 
been  rigorously  tested  out  in  practice.  To  a  compara- 
tively high  degree  the  general  notions  held  by  practical 
men  are  made  to  do  service. 

RESULTS   OF   INSTRUCTION 

We  have  now  completed  our  brief  survey  of  the  three 
steps  in  instruction.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  details 
must  first  be  acquired,  that  from  these,  general  principles 
are  to  be  constructed,  and  that  in  the  application  of  such 
principles  knowledge  becomes  power.  It  now  remains 
to  consider,  in  conclusion,  three  general  results  which 
may  accrue  to  the  executive  through  his  use  of  the  in- 
struction policy.    These  may  be  set  forth  as  follows : 

I.  Definite  Procedure.  —  From  the  stock  of  assembled 
knowledge  issues  guidance.  The  material,  in  organized 
and  usable  form,  reposes  in  the  learner's  brain  as  a 
director  of  action,  a  measure  of  accomplishment.  'D^e 
instructed  individual  is  transformed  into  an  effective 
workman. 


BENEFITS   GAINED  239 

In  its  wider  aspects,  moreover,  instruction  creates  a 
new  and  larger  brain.  Its  net  is  wide  flung ;  from  indi- 
vidual workmen,  ofiicial,  and  competitor,  from  obser- 
vation, printed  page,  and  experiment,  is  accumulated 
a  rich  spoil.  Adapted,  it  becomes  the  essence  of  organ- 
ization, the  directive  agent  in  industry,  business,  or 
social  life. 

2.  Rapid  Development.  —  It  is  quite  essential  that  in 
order  to  gain  any  well-rounded  knowledge  concerning 
his  organization,  the  novice  should  begin  at  the  bottom. 
The  recognition  of  this  fact  is  responsible  for  such  in- 
stances as  young  Ward,  the  millionaire  baker's  son,  driv- 
ing a  deHvery  wagon,  and  young  Vanderbilt,  clad  in 
overalls,  working  in  the  railroad  shops;  contact  with 
conditions  at  first  hand  gives  the  "  feel "  and  point  of  view. 

It  is  equally  true  that  the  men  most  valuable  to  an 
organization  are  at  the  top.  The  general  manager  out- 
weighs a  score  perhaps  of  district  managers,  and  the 
ability  of  the  chief  executive  himself  may  not  exist  in 
the  combined  capacities  of  half  a  hundred  shipping 
clerks.  Since  men  should  begin  at  the  bottom  yet  be- 
come more  valuable  as  they  near  the  top,  the  practical 
thing  is  to  accelerate  the  process,  if  possible. 

Instruction  accomplishes  this.  In  the  public  school, 
a  child  in  twelve  years  imbibes  a  social  inheritance  which 
the  race  has  constructed  only  in  hundreds  of  thousands ; 
the  college  graduate,  the  heir  of  all  the  ages,  in  sixteen 
years  has  traversed  in  great  thought  strides  the  toilsome 
journey  from  cave  man  to  contemporary.  Instruction 
in  the  railroad,  factory,  bank,  or  insurance  office  simi- 
larly will  accelerate  progress  for  the  amateur  who  would 
be  vice  president.  Mastering  details,  weaving  them 
into  general  principles,  and  with  these  solving  new  prob- 
lems, under  skilled  instruction  he  travels  through  the 
organization  as  with  seven-league  boots. 


240  INSTRUCTION 

5.  Tentative  Attitudes.  —  Instruction  is  based  upon 
evidence;  its  aim  is  merely  to  see  details  as  they  are 
and  from  them  to  deduce  principles  which  when  appHed 
will  work.  But  this  point  of  view,  simple  as  it  may  seem 
when  stated,  removes  from  instruction,  and  from  organ- 
izations making  use  of  any  instruction  worthy  of  that 
name,  the  danger  of  becoming  static.  Its  appeal  to 
intelligence  promotes  progress  and  insures  toleration. 
It  has  provided  a  method  by  which  difficulties  are  solved 
through  the  discovery  of  truth,  a  means  through  which, 
because  open  to  all,  individual  initiative  is  secured. 

The  discussion  of  the  various  methods  by  which 
men  are  motivated  we  may  now  conclude.  It  has  been 
shown  that  these  methods  embrace  a  wide  variety  of 
appeals,  ranging  from  the  elusive  force  of  personality 
to  the  matter-of-fact  system  of  instruction.  These 
appeals,  taken  singly  or  in  combination,  leave  nothing 
in  our  instincts,  emotions,  or  intellect  which  they  cannot 
stir.  It  is  for  the  executive,  a  practicing  psychologist, 
to  select  and  use  them  as  he  will,  to  become,  in  other 
words,  an  artist  playing  upon  the  strings  of  human 
motive. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  are  theorists  and  practical  men  so  often  mutually 
antagonized?  What  indications  that  such  antagonism  is  lessen- 
ing? 

2.  In  some  process  now  unsystematized,  illustrate  how  stand- 
ardization might  be  brought  about. 

3.  Should  subordinates  be  given  general  or  specific  directions? 

4.  What  reasons  behind  the  movement  for  schools  in  factories 
and  commercial  houses? 

5.  Is  it  advisable  for  business  men  to  discuss  their  policies  in 
trade  magazines? 

6.  Should  a  young  man  dependent  upon  his  own  efforts  for 
support  pursue  a  liberal-culture  college  course? 

7.  Discuss  and  illustrate  the  following  maxims  of  teaching: 
the  concrete  before  the  abstract ;  facts  before  definitions  or  prin- 


EXERCISES  AND   READINGS  241 

ciples;  processes  before  rules;  from  the  particular  to  the  gen- 
eral; from  the  simple  to  the  complex;  from  the  known  to  the 
related  unknown. 

READINGS 

McMuRRY,  Method  of  the  Recitation. 

Annual   Report   (latest),   National  Association  of   Corporation 
Schools. 


PART   III:    LIMITS   UPON   THE 
EXECUTIVE 


CHAPTER  XX 
Interest  and  Apathy 

"  For  many  are  called,  but  few  chosen." 

—  Matthew  xxii.  14. 

The  average  subordinate  is  by  no  means  a  mere  pup- 
pet for  another's  deft  manipulation.  He  has  rights  and 
claims.  And  the  executive  who  would  control  him 
through  mysterious  passes,  counterfeit  rewards,  or 
blaring  command, — who  would,  in  short,  use  him  as  a  tool 
in  getting  something  for  nothing, — wins  no  lasting  power, 
but  usually  runs  quickly  amuck.  It  is  not  alone  in 
revolution  that  the  driven  press  back  upon  the  driver. 
This  fact  emphasizes  the  general  truth  to  be  considered 
in  Part  III,  that  in  the  control  of  men  executives  are 
always  under  restrictions.  The  first  of  these  to  be  con- 
sidered, the  subject  of  the  present  chapter,  is  apathy; 
the  subordinates  are  not  interested. 

No  one  can  possibly  be  interested  in  everything. 
His  consciousness  is  bombarded  by  a  multiplicity  of 
stimuli ;  in  fact,  persistently  besieged  by  claimants  for 
attention.  To  grant  audience  to  each  would  entail 
complete  distraction,  and  produce  a  mind  fit  only  for 
the  madhouse.  Hence  to  live  the  mental  life  at  all, 
consciousness,  as  an  ejB&cient  executive,  is  forced  to  be- 
come a  selective  agent,  evaluating  the  incoming  stimuli 
on  the  basis  of  their  relative  importance.     In  this  rank- 

24s 


246  INTEREST  AND   APATHY 

ing  process,  certain  of   them  are   suppressed;    others 
evaluated  more  highly,  receive  attention. 

Every  one  from  his  own  experience  knows  how  atten- 
tion operates.  Out  of  what  seem  several  simultaneously 
possible  objects  or  trains  of  thought,  the  mind  takes 
possession  of  one,  withdraws  from  others  in  order  to 
deal  effectively  with  it,  focalizes  and  concentrates  upon 
it,  holds  it  in  clear  and  vivid  form.  The  other  items  of 
the  outward  order,  millions  of  them,  though  present  to 
the  senses,  never  properly  enter  into  experience.  Be- 
cause they  hold  no  interest,  they  are  screened  out  and 
their  appeal  by  no  chance  has  force.^ 

INTEREST  AND  THE  EXECUTIVE 

Since  the  stimulus  unattended  never  takes  possession 
of  consciousness,  to  the  executive  non-interest  on  the 
part  of  his  subordinates  is  fatal.  The  efficacy  of  the 
foregoing  methods  of  stimulation  and  control  depends  upon 
the  interest  they  hold  in  the  minds  of  followers.  Person- 
ality, emulation,  rewards,  instruction,  all  of  them  have 
a  power  —  if  the  mind  attends  to  them.  If  not,  they 
are  sounding  brass. 

Hence  arises  the  value  of  what  may  be  termed  the 
psychological  moment  —  the  stimulus  then  falls  upon  a 
peculiarly  receptive  consciousness.  "  When  I  used  to 
say  as  I  rode  through  the  lines  in  the  heat  of  battle," 
declared  Napoleon,  "  '  Unfurl  your  flags,  the  moment 
has  come,'  the  French  soldiers  simply  shook  with  eager- 
ness." This  same  sense  of  the  psychological  moment 
impelled  Mohammed  to  receive  his  new  revelations  always 

1  "This  whole  function  of  conceiving,  of  fixing,  and  holding  fast  to 
meanings,"  says  James,  "has  no  significance  apart  from  the  fact  that 
the  conceiver  is  a  creature  with  partial  purposes  and  private  ends." 
Pfin.  of  Psy.y  I,  482.     Cf.  402-404. 


WHEN  INTEREST  WAXES  247 

at  such  opportune  time,  Moody  to  offer  a  prayer  just  be- 
fore the  vote  was  taken  in  a  wrangling  Sunday-School 
Convention,  the  manager  to  extend  promotion  on  the 
subordinate's  birthday  or  to  spread  the  message  of 
cooperation  on  pay  day,  Caesar  to  move  amid  poHtical 
plans  and  intrigues  eighteen  years  before  heading  an 
army,  and  Pitt,  early  in  his  career,  to  refuse  the  coveted 
prime  ministership  tendered  him  because  "  the  fruit 
was  not  yet  ripe.'' 

If  the  moment  is  propitious,  i.e.  if  interest  can  be  en- 
listed readily,  it  is  often  given  to  small  men  to  wield 
large  powers.  During  the  "  great  fear  "  in  France,  the 
cry,  "  The  brigands  are  coming  "  enabled  nameless  men 
to  head  battalions  of  their  own  marshaling.  The 
French  Revolution  was  led  by  mediocrity.^  The 
reawakening  of  patriotism  which  swept  the  country 
after  the  Agadir  crisis  furnished  the  setting  for  a  domi- 
nant personaUty,  President  Poincare,  just  as  the  war 
spirit  later  reared  new  pinnacles  of  power  in  Joffre,  von 
Hindenburg,  Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  and  the  Kaiser. 
Similarly,  Pitt,  not  yet  twenty-five,  once  wielded  in 
England  a  power  such  as  no  other  minister  had  since  the 
Revolution,  supported,  as  Lord  Rosebery  observes,^ 
on  the  tidal  wave  of  one  of  those  great  convulsions  of 
feeling  which  in  Great  Britain  express  and  relieve  pent-up 

1  Desmoulins,  a  hitherto  unknown  newspaper  correspondent,  by- 
mounting  a  wine  table  in  the  Palais-Royal  gardens  and  haranguing  the 
crowd  concerning  the  dismissal  of  Necker,  initiated  an  impulse  of  vast 
import  on  that  12th  of  July.  Stanislas  Maillard,  appearing  in  the 
Place  de  la  Gr^ve  justas  a  body  of  some  five,  hundred  women,  wrought  up 
to  a  state  of  frenzy  over  their  wrongs,  many  of  them  starving  and  all 
desirous  that  some  one  should  be  punished,  were  about  to  hang  an  unfor- 
tunate abb6,  by  seizing  a  drum,  and  shouting  "A  Versailles !"  led  the 
entire  rabble  with  loud  shouts  on  the  road  to  Louis'  palace.  In  the  same 
way  the  headstrong  enthusiasm  of  the  revolutionary  recruits,  later  mar- 
shaled by  Dumouriez,  was  the  real  cause  of  his  victories. 

2  William  Pitt,  57-58. 


248  INTEREST  AND   APATHY 

national  sentiment.  Our  own  country  in  1896  wit- 
nessed an  interesting  illustration  of  the  same  sort.  A 
curious  crisis  confronted  the  Democratic  party ;  successful 
four  years  before,  its  delegates  were  now  divided,  anxious, 
and  in  doubt  —  the  proper  setting  for  a  conqueror. 
When  Bryan  illumined  the  darkness,  "  You  shall  not 
crucify  humanity  upon  a  cross  of  gold,"  it  was  as  if 
an  oracle  had  appeared.  The  carnival  of  materialism 
then  ended,  and  the  revivalist  had  come  to  his  own. 

How  interpret  these  great  movements  of  waxing 
interest?  The  answer,  perhaps,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
nature  of  interest  itself.  It  represents  the  dynamic 
phase  of  consciousness,  the  outward,  projective  aspect 
of  mind,  the  organizing  activity  par  excellence.  Now 
this  type  of  activity  is  especially  emphasized  when  habit 
becomes  inadequate  to  secure  adaptation.  Hence  in 
periods  of  transition,  witnessing  as  they  do  the  break- 
down of  the  old  before  the  newly  developing  is  competent 
to  guide,  what  was  heretofore  in  the  custody  of  habit  is 
taken  in  charge  by  interest.  When  Luther  nailed  up 
his  theses,  to  take  a  most  prominent  single  instance  in 
the  movement,  the  religious  currents  were  soon  thrown 
from  their  smooth  channels ;  a  period  of  questioning, 
denunciation,  and  experiment  ensued.  Europe  for 
decades  seethed  with  religious  interest.  All  transitional 
periods,  be  they  civil  wars,  democratic  movements,  or 
labor  upheavals,  illustrate  the  same  tendency.  The  wax- 
ing and  waning  of  interest  varies  directly  with  the  need 
for  new  adaptations. 

A  period  of  change  thus  provides  unique  opportunity 
for  the  guiding  hand.  Witness  the  power  wielded  by 
Lincoln  during  the  Civil  War,  the  authority  of  the  relief 
committee's  head  while  the  flood  is  on,  the  repudiation 
for  the  time  being  of  democratic  control  as  the  trade- 
imionists  engage  in  strikes.    The  dazzling  figures  of 


PERIODS  OF   CHANGE  249 

history, — Napoleon,  Caesar,  Bismarck,  Alexander,  Gari- 
baldi, Washington,  —  are  men  of  transitional  eras. 

Is  it  likely  that  the  era  of  change  has  passed,  that, 
humanity  floating  without  jar  on  the  smooth  currents 
of  habit,  the  power  of  leaders  is  to  suffer  eclipse  ?  Pos- 
sibly the  world  will  never  again  witness  the  climactic 
scenes  of  nation  making  and  reformation  and  democra- 
tization. Social  control  steadily  becomes  more  stabilized ; 
a  sounder  core  of  directive  matter  is  developed  in  the 
individual  brain.  Yet  change  in  itself  has  not  ceased. 
Even  though,  like  a  rotating  wheel,  the  striving  millions 
pursue  the  same  cycle  of  satisfaction,  cumulative  by- 
products sufficient  to  cause  social  change  are  left  behind. 
Nor  does  each  generation  reproduce  accurately  the 
copies  set  by  its  ancestors,  another  source  of  gradual 
change.  Especially,  however,  do  such  fundamental  stim- 
uli as  growth  of  population,  accumulation  of  wealth, 
migration,  innovation,  cross-fertilization  of  cultures, 
interaction  of  groups,  conjugation  of  societies,  and  al- 
teration of  environment  throw  new  strains  upon  the 
social  order  and  require  far-reaching  adjustments.^ 
Scarce  an  executive,  be  he  vice  president  of  a  trust 
company  or  humble  foreman  of  a  grading  gang,  manages 
an  organization  not  profoundly  in  the  grip  of  one  or 
more  of  these  molding  forces.  And  these  forces,  it  is 
safe  to  say,  will  abide  for  an  immeasurably  long  time. 

SECURING  INTEREST 

The  problem  of  maintaining  interest  within  an  organ- 
ization, however  practical  the  need,  is  elusive  when  one 
considers  methodology.^    But   in   general   it   may   be 

1  Ross,  Found,  of  Soc,  Ch.  VIII. 

2  Angell  declares,  "When  we  seek  to  discover  what  attributes  an 
object  must  possess  in  order  to  be  interesting,  we  are  forced  back  at  once 
upon  uninstructive  generalities."    Psychology,  364. 


250  INTEREST  AND   APATHY 

said  that  a  person  is  interested  in  whatever  seems  to  afford 
self-realization.  This,  of  course,  is  based  upon  a  broad 
conception,  of  what  constitutes  self.  "In  its  widest 
possible  sense,"  says  James,^  "  a  man's  self  is  the  sum 
total  of  all  that  he  can  call  his,  not  only  his  body  and  his 
psychic  powers,  but  his  clothes  and  his  house,  his 
wife  and  children,  his  ancestors  and  friends,  his  reputation 
and  works,  his  lands  and  horses,  and  yacht  and  bank 
account.  All  these  things  give  him  the  same  emotions. 
If  they  wax  and  prosper,  he  feels  triumphant ;  if  they 
dwindle  and  die  away,  he  feels  cast  down,  —  not  neces- 
sarily in  the  same  degree  for  each  thing,  but  in  much  the 
same  way  for  all."  According  to  this  view  of  person- 
ality, and  it  is  justified  by  analysis,  self-realization  be- 
comes comprehensive.  Multitudes  of  things  are  inter- 
twined with  self-feeling ;  and  self-feeling  entails  interest. 

Human  nature  as  a  whole  accepts  certain  fundamentals 
as  interesting,  basic  appeals,  therefore,  being  possible 
among  all  peoples.  At  the  same  time,  races  and  classes 
vary  somewhat  in  the  means  chosen  for  self-realization 
and  the  relative  emphasis  placed  upon  these.  The 
negro's  attention  is  given  to  parade  and  show;  gold- 
headed  canes,  brass  bands,  the  swagger  style,  to  him 
represent  the  humanly  desirable.  In  a  municipal  cam- 
paign, the  ears  of  the  "  faithful  "  prick  up  at  hints  of 
booty,  the  sober  citizen  pays  heed  to  arguments  drawn 
from  tax  sheets.  Because  of  these  variations  —  and 
they  commonly  prevail  among  groups,  nay,  even  among 
individuals  and  in  the  same  individual  at  different 
times  —  choosing  the  successful  appeal  requires  insight. 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  a  wide  range  of  appeals  has 
been  considered;  from  personality  to  instruction,  the 
various  means  have  been  analyzed  through  which  some 
particular   group   might   elect   to   realize   itself.    The 

*  Prin.  of  Psy.f  I,  291-292. 


RESHAPING  SUBORDINATES  251 

policy  of  the  executive  in  making  use  of  these  appeals 
may  be  indicated  by  the  conduct  of  Alexander  at  Issus. 
He  rode  down  the  line,  to  the  Macedonians  naming 
their  battle  fields  and  victories,  to  the  Greeks  speaking 
of  another  Darius  overthrown  by  their  forefathers  at 
Marathon,  selecting  the  particular  appeal  to  nerve  each 
phalanx  in  turn.  Similarly  Hannibal  before  Zama  prom- 
ised booty  and  pay  to  the  mercenaries  drawn  from  many 
lands  of  Europe,  bade  his  Italians  remember  the  glory 
of  their  former  victories  under  his  banner,  reminded  the 
Carthaginians  of  their  ancestors  and  their  wives  and 
children.     Hannibal,  too,  was  a  man  of  insight. 

To  a  certain  extent,  followers  can  be  reshaped  so  they 
will  respond  favorably  to  given  appeals.  Since  human 
nature  is  plastic,  not  static,  to  secure  the  response 
desired  time  only  in  many  cases  is  necessary.  It  is 
merely  a  matter  of  months  before  the  newly  landed 
peasant  from  Slavonia  will  accept  the  slogan,  "  Join  the 
union !  "  The  Philippine  jungle  men,  whose  delight 
once  was  only  in  the  shady  trees  near  the  road  bed,  were 
in  due  season  strenuously  laying  rails  for  the  "  green 
papers "  they  first  ignored.  Subjected  to  influences 
long  continued,  the  child  who  might  have  been  an  artist 
becomes  a  prosperous  merchant,  a  coal  heaver,  or  a  pick- 
pocket. Imbibed  from  the  milieu  are  the  values  we 
all  accept,  social  products.  The  stimulus  of  personahty, 
suggestion,  discipline,  and  so  on,  as  wielded  by  an 
executive,  may  constitute  environment  only  to  a  limited 
degree,  but  in  their  whetting  of  interests  they  possess 
the  power  to  form  habits  —  and  habits  once  fixed  often 
find  us  reacting  to  interests  heretofore  alien  to  our  being. 
The  executive,  for  purposes  of  interest,  has  reshaped 
his  subordinates. 

In  this  reshaping  process,  much  depends  upon  the 
inherent  nature  of  that  which  is  to  be  impressed.    Since 


252  INTEREST  AND    APATHY 

\  the  mind  exercises  a  selective  influence  upon  the  numer- 
ous claimants  for  attention,  some  ideas  readily  fade, 
disintegrate;  others,  however,  are  prepotent,  able  to 
dominate  consciousness.  What  of  these?  In  general, 
j  they  represent  objects  of  passion,  appetite,  or  emotion, 
I  i.e.  instinctive  reactions;  feelings  of  pleasure  or  pain; 
ideas  to  whose  reaction  we  have  grown  accustomed  by 
habit;  or  ideas  of  things  present  or  near  in  time  and 
space.  As  compared  with  such  objects,  in  the  struggle 
to  possess  consciousness  all  far-off  considerations,  un- 
accustomed reasons,  and  motives  alien  to  the  instincts 
normally  are  dispossessed.  They  lack  impulsive  power 
and  they  prevail,  when  they  ever  do  prevail,  with  effort.^ 
Some  applications  possibly  may  render  the  import 
of  these  principles  clearer.  The  unseen  normally  has 
less  power  over  attention  than  tactile  impressions,  such 
as  comfort  of  clothing,  warmth  of  room.  But  when 
to  neglect  of  this  unseen  once  was  linked  the  far  more 
pungent  of  impressions,  the  torments  of  hell  fire,  thou- 
sands set  out  as  crusaders;  daily  sufferings,  unusually 
severe  though  they  were,  succumbed  before  the  vivid 
phrase  of  the  herald,  "  Help  us,  Holy  Sepulchre !  " 
The  oft-recurring  in  general  is  able  to  discount  the 

1  James,  Prin.  of  Psy.,  II,  536.  These  qualities  Professor  James, 
when  considering  the  persistence  of  an  idea  even  though  contradicted, 
has  outlined  somewhat  more  fully  as  follows : 

"  (i)  Coerciveness  over  attention,  or  the  mere  power  to  possess  con- 
sciousness :    then  follow  — 

"  (2)  Liveliness,  or  sensible  pungency,  especially  in  the  way  of  excit- 
ing pleasure  or  pain. 

"  (3)  Stimulating  effect  upon  the  will,  i.e.  capacity  to  arouse  active 
impulses,  the  more  instinctive  the  better ; 

"(4)  Emotional  interest,  as  object  of  love,  dread,  admiration,  de- 
sire, etc. ; 

"(s)  Congruity  with  certain  favorite  forms  of  contemplation, — 
unity,  simplicity,  permanence,  and  the  like ; 

"(6)  Independence  of  other  causes,  and  its  own  causal  importance. 

"These  characters  run  into  each  other."    Ibid.,  300. 


STRONG  APPEALS  253 

unusual;  yet  this  unusual  at  times  possesses  greater 
motivation  than  a  whole  series  of  the  ordinaries.  See 
with  what  persistence  is  remembered  the  assassination 
of  Lincoln,  the  breaking  of  the  bank  at  Monte  Carlo, 
the  drowning  of  the  boy  who  ran  away  from  Sunday 
School  to  fish,  the  confession  of  the  conscience-stricken 
clerk,  the  impudent  machinist  hurled  down  stairs  by 
the  "  old  man."  The  unusual,  if  exceptional,  gains  in 
impressiveness. 

Again,  the  real  in  toto  often  possesses  less  power  than 
as  a  sign.  The  laconic  command  frequently  is  more 
impressive  in  what  it  leaves  out  than  in  what  it  con- 
tains. And  just  as  the  cartoonist  with  a  few  clever 
strokes  sets  a  Mexican  revolution  before  us,  so  a  scrawled 
autograph,  an  image-stirring  phrase,  a  dramatic  coup, 
at  times  multiplies  its  power  many  fold.  The  imagina- 
tion is  ever  ready  to  leap  from  trifles  to  encompass  great 
measures ;  and  even  reasoning  itself,  if  of  high  order,  is 
a  dropping  out  of  steps  and  a  playing  with  signs.  The 
executive  may  make  the  little  do  service  for  the  much. 

Li  any  case,  should  these  various  aspects  of  interest 
coalesce,  their  effect  is  heightened.  Saladin,  for  in- 
stance, by  promises  of  treasure,  spirited  exhortations 
on  courage,  and  tales  of  the  monstrous  barbarities  in- 
fliicted  by  the  Franks  upon  the  vanquished,  induced  his 
troops,  in  the  face  of  hunger  and  incessant  assaults,  to 
hold  out  for  seventy-five  days.  Mohammed,  in  his 
famous  conquests,  united  in  one  effective  appeal  the 
grandest  scheme  of  a  conqueror,  the  lust  of  a  freebooter, 
and  the  sanctified  zeal  of  an  apostle.  The  Conqueror 
of  Mexico  played  first  on  the  religious  sentiments  of 
his  followers,  then  on  their  pride  as  Spaniards,  and  last 
and  always  on  their  itch  for  gold.  Martin  Van  Buren 
—  and  Jefferson  as  well  —  based  his  political  power 
on  a  curious  but  potent  mixture  of  philosophy,  states- 


254  INTEREST  AND   APATHY 

manship,  and  electioneering.  And  the  pure  gospel  of  the 
Nazarenewas  vulgarized,  though  at  the  same  time  made 
popular,  by  combining  with  its  lofty  ideahsm  crude 
rewards  and  punishments  and  enough  illusion  to  make 
it  go.  The  summation  of  tensions  thus  secured,  even 
were  each  appeal  in  itself  weak,  at  last  overcomes 
resistance;  a  nervous  discharge  ensues  and  energy  is 
released. 

MAINTAINING  INTEREST 

The  above  will  perhaps  suffice  to  indicate,  on  the  basis 
of  the  principle  given,  how  in  concrete  situations  inter- 
est may  be  secured.  It  now  remains  to  consider  the 
means  by  which,  when  once  secured,  it  may  be  main- 
tained. 

J.  Its  Current  should  he  Concentrated.  —  Our  con- 
sciousness, as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Royce,  constantly 
tends  to  the  minimum  of  complexity  and  the  maximum 
of  definiteness.  If  things  have  more  than  a  certain 
complexity,  either  our  attention  falters,  allowing  the 
whole  mass  to  go  by  without  discrimination;  or  we 
yield  to  the  desire  to  believe  this  complexity  does  not 
exist,  our  minds  catching  at  the  slightest  excuse  to  postu- 
late regularity  and  simplicity. 

Whoever  would  hold  attention  should  work  in  harmony 
with  this  tendency  of  the  mind.  The  public  speaker 
who  opens  with  "  There  are  just  two  points  we  need 
to  consider,"  grips  attention  from  the  first;  the  one 
who  rises  to  make  "  a  few  general  remarks  "  lulls  his 
hearers'  alertness,  for  they  have  been  bored  before. 
The  wise  leader  accordingly  concentrates  attention  upon 
one  problem  at  a  time  —  the  general  manager  "  boils 
down  "  his  directions ;  the  advertiser  hammers  home 
one  argument  each  issue,  leaving  others  for  "  a  later 
message  " ;  the  politician  selects  "  paramount  "  issues. 


DISTRACTIONS  255 

Such  clearness  and  simplicity  do  not  overload  interest, 
but  maintain  it  to  the  end. 

2.  Distractions  should  he  Eliminated,,  —  The  mind, 
as  was  pointed  out  above,  is  selective  in  its  interests ; 
ignoring  some  ideas,  admitting  though  minimizing  some, 
magnifying  others,  it  possesses  perspective.  But  this 
is  far  from  saying  that  the  selections  of  interest  normally 
coincide  with  the  requirements  of  our  daily  tasks.  The 
office  boy  looks  at  the  special  delivery  letter,  but  does 
it  rouse  impulses  able  to  contend  with  the  luring  sound 
of  the  five  o'clock  bell?  Even  the  executive  himself, 
seated  at  work-piled  desk,  dreams  for  a  moment  of  the 
griddle  cakes  served  that  morning  or  perchance  quite 
ignores  a  $10,000  contract  when  the  automobile  tire 
explodes  outside,  —  present-day  requirements  subju- 
gated to  the  claims  of  racial  instincts. 

Every  means,  therefore,  by  which  interest  and  task 
can  be  brought  into  harmony  should  be  employed  for  » 
whatever  it  may  be  worth.  Removing  distractions  is 
one  of  these.  Its  worst  form  is  merely  noise;  loco-  • 
motive  whistles,  elevated  trains,  automobile  horns,  street 
cars,  heavy  trucks,  old-clothes  men,  fruit  venders, 
newsboys,  and  construction  gangs  produce  a  roar  in  the 
street  outside,  which  floating  into  office  or  factory 
and  adding  itself  to  the  ring  of  telephones  and  call 
bells,  click  of  typewriters,  slam  of  doors,  pound  of 
machinery,  and  sounds  of  dictation,  conversation,  and 
footsteps,  din  the  ears  incessantly.  Rows  of  callers, 
unexpected  interruptions,  uncertainties,  suspicions,  fur- 
ther increase  the  strain  upon  attention.  The  executive, 
and  his  subordinates  too,  beset  by  these  foes  of  concen- 
tration, plod  along  with  only  a  fraction  of  their  full 
powers  doing  service,  exhausted  at  night,  not  because 
of  their  achievement,  but  because  of  the  expenditure  of 
energy  in  resisting  distractions. 


256  INTEREST  AND   APATHY 

These,  however,  to  a  great  extent  can  be  eliminated. 
Anti-noise  crusades  in  the  municipality,  and  in  each 
establishment  a  careful  running  of  partitions,  muffling 
telephone  and  call  bells,  using  rubber  matting  and 
rubber  heels,  deadening  walls  and  floors,  the  removal  of 
plant  or  office  to  quiet  location,  exalting  quietness  as  an 
ideal,  and  providing  a  working  schedule  according  to 
which  one  task  at  a  time  is  taken  up  and  dispatched, 
all  are  means  by  which,  distracting  influences  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  interest  may  more  easily  hold  to  the 
task  at  hand.  It  is  a  practical  program  which  any 
executive  bent  upon  efficiency  may  well  foster. 

5.  Interest  involves  Successive  Action  and  Reaction. 
—  Interest  is  a  matter  of  pulsations,  of  ebb  and  flow, 
there  being  no  such  thing  as  continuous  voluntary 
attention.  The  nearest  approach  to  it,  that  which  is 
commonly  termed  continuous  attention,  in  fact,  consists 
solely  in  a  succession  of  attempts  to  hold  the  topic  in 
consciousness,  the  mind  occup3dng  itself  first  with  one 
phase,  then  with  another,  until,  should  the  subject  be 
congenial,  hours  may  pass  with  interest  still  engaged.^ 

The  astute  auctioneer  takes  account  of  this  ebb  and 
flow  as  he  urges  for  higher  bids; ^   baseball  managers 

1  James,  op.  cit.,  I,  420-421. 

*  Note  how  Joseph  P.  Day,  the  most  successful  of  real  estate  auc- 
tioneers, in  the  following  stenographic  report  of  a  sale,  observes  this  law 
of  action  and  reaction.  After  commenting  favorably  upon  the  property, 
he  asks,  "How  much  am  I  bid?" 

"Fifty  thousand  dollars?  Oh,  no,  thirty  thousand,  thirty  thousand 
dollars  —  thirty-five  thousand  —  forty  thousand.  That  is  where  it 
should  have  started.  Forty  thousand  —  forty-one  thousand  —  forty- 
two  —  forty-four  —  fifty  thousand  dollars !  That  is  where  you  should 
have  begun  to  bid.  Fifty-one,  one,  one,  one  —  fifty-two  —  three  — 
four  —  five  —  six  —  seven  —  eight  —  nine  —  sixty  thousand  dollars. 

"That  last  man  is  a  very  cautious  person.  Sixty-two  thousand 
dollars.  [Bidding  rises,  with  several  more  reaction  periods,  to  eighty 
thousand.]     It  is  going,  the  third  and  last  call,  at  eighty  thousand. 

"Look  here,  Mr.  Shanley,  you  have  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 


EBB   AND   FLOW  OF  INTEREST  257 

have  learned  that  hard-driven  teams  may  be  expected 
to  "  slump/'  that  in  a  crucial  series  the  machine  over- 
keyed  is  liable  at  any  crisis  to  "  crack  " ;  politicians 
find  that  periods  of  popular  excitement  normally  are 
followed  by  periods  of  lassitude,  hence  after  a  vigorous 
agitation  the  wise  ones  return  to  country  places  for  the 
"  much-needed  vacation"  or  go  on  some  far  hunting 
expedition.  The  process  apparently  is  dilatory;  but 
as  in  heart  beat  systole  cannot  be  separated  from  diastole, 
so  through  action  and  reaction  interest  is  maintained. 
Variety  or  change,  a  conmionly  used  expedient,  too 
frequently  involves  aimlessness;  interest  is  held  but 
nothing  definite  is  accomplished.  This  defect  is  over- 
come by  exhibiting  in  turn  various  phases  of  the  same 
topic.  Chancellor  Lloyd  George,  no  doubt,  seeks  to 
realize  in  England  but  one  principle,  democracy;  yet 
the  interesting  chancellor  is  said  to  have  a  talent  for 
stirring  up  things,  apparently  possessed  by  no  other 
man  in  British  politics.  William  Jennings  Bryan  very 
likely  has  drawn  more  people  into  his  audiences  than  any 
other  man  in  all  history;  free  silver,  anti-imperialism, 
guarantee  of  bank  deposits,  government  ownership, 
all  have  been  successively  embraced  in  his  repertoire. 
Underneath  these,  however,  the  safeguarding  of  the  many 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  few  seems  through  the 
years  to  have  been  the  sole  issue  of  the  perennial  Bryan. 

the  best  restaurant  men  in  New  York.  You  know  what  the  value  of 
this  property  will  be,  backed  by  your  judgment  in  the  restaurant  business. 
Eighty  thousand  dollars  is  the  price.  Are  you  going  to  lose  your  repu- 
tation as  a  man  of  good  judgment? 

"Mr.  Shanley  has  good  judgment.  Eighty-five  thousand  dollars. 
[Bidding  continues.]  Soldi  Sold  to  Shanley  Brothers  at  ninety-six 
thousand  dollars." 

Had  Mr.  Day  vigorously  forced  the  bidding  without  pause,  the  sell- 
ing price  probably  would  not  have  gone  higher  than  seventy  thousand. 
That  it  went  to  ninety-six  shows  how  Mr.  Day  capitalized  a  psychological 
principle. 


2S8  INTEREST  AND   APATHY 

When  the  successive  objects  of  attention  are  bound  to- 
gether in  rational  sequence,  interest  is  maintained  and 
the  central  topic,  branching  and  budding  in  the  mind, 
bears  a  rich  fruitage. 

APATHY 

Apathy  is  the  obverse  of  interest,  the  bog  into  which 
those,  lost  to  the  narrow  path  of  attention,  will  wander. 
Apathy  represents  the  indifferent,  lethargic  phase  of 
life;  interest,  the  dynamic,  propulsive  phase.  Yet 
between  them  is  a  broad  twilight  zone,  the  territory 
shading  from  dazzling  day  to  darkest  night,  in  which  all 
organizations  now  labor.  Their  effectiveness,  depending 
both  upon  the  relative  position  they  now  hold  and  the 
direction  in  which  they  tend,  affords  opportunity  for 
the  executive's  skill.  He  would  have  his  organization 
approach  interest  and  quit  apathy,  and  fortunately 
this  is  not  impossible. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Should  an  executive  enforce  systematic  rest  periods? 
Maintain  a  lunch  room? 

2.  Which  consumes  more  energy,  what  one  does  or  what  he 
resists  doing  in  order  to  concentrate? 

3.  Illustrate  the  operation  in  specific  cases  of  the  various  causes 
of  change.     (See  page  24^.) 

4.  Harmonize  the  opposing  claims,  "The  times  produce  the 
leaders  needed,"  and  "Leaders  shape  the  times." 

5.  Show  how  the  victory  of  the  Japanese  over  the  Russians  was 
influenced  by  the  previous  knowledge  each  had  of  the  other. 

6.  Analyze  the  elements  in  the  appeal  of  a  politician,  an  adver- 
tiser, a  preacher,  and  a  labor  organizer.  Illustrate  successful 
appeal.    Ill-chosen  appeal. 

READINGS 
James,  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology,  Chs.  X,  XI,  XIV. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

The  Arousing  of  Opposition 

"The  world  ever  loves  to  charge  those  as  mad  who,  in  devo- 
tion to  a  great  cause,  exceed  its  cold  standard  of  moderation." 

—  William  Ware. 

Apathy  is  frequently  followed  by  opposition.  The 
organization,  no  longer  content  with  passivity,  in  a 
more  positive  way  would  limit  its  chief  by  bringing 
adverse  pressure  to  bear  upon  him.  Indifference  is 
exchanged  for  constraint.  This  constraint  may  be 
due  to  friendly  rivalry,  contrary  suggestion,  or  instinc- 
tive hostility,  but  its  most  proUfic  source  is  what  may  be 
rather  broadly  termed  a  sense  of  difference. 

Every  one  knows  what  this  sense  of  difference  is  like, 
the  feeling  that  somehow  the  other  person  is  out  of 
touch.  In  every  organization,  due  to  association  and 
cooperation,  the  interplay  of  suggestion,  sympathy, 
common  ideals,  and  the  like,  certain  similarities  are 
developed  in  our  group  to  which  the  outsider  is  unmis- 
takably alien.  Perpetuated  by  habit,  these  similarities 
come  to  take  on  binding  force.  The  old  organization 
is  overgrown  with  conservatism,  and  the  guiding  rule  of 
its  members  is  what  has  been  done  before. 

But  every  organization,  necessarily  so,  as  has  been 
shown,  is  in  the  grip  of  change  and  must  continually 
make  new  adjustments.  The  innovator,  be  he  political 
reformer  with  a  new  justice  or  a  department  manager 
yearning  for  greater  efficiency,  urges,  even  forces,  for- 

259 


26o  THE  AROUSING  OF  OPPOSITION 

ward  his  new  plan.  What  characteristic  effects  upon 
the  group  members  does  this  entail? 

They  are  Pained.  —  "  One  of  the  greatest  pains  to 
human  nature/'  says  Bagehot/  "  is  the  pain  of  a  new 
idea.  It  is,  as  common  people  say,  so  '  upsetting  ' ;  it 
makes  you  think  that,  after  all,  your  favourite  notions 
may  be  wrong,  your  firmest  beliefs  ill-founded;  it  is 
certain  that  till  now  there  was  no  place  allotted  in  your 
mind  to  the  new  and  startling  inhabitant,  and  now  that 
it  has  conquered  an  entrance,  you  do  not  at  once  see  which 
of  your  old  ideas  it  will  or  will  not  turn  out,  with  which 
of  them  it  can  be  reconciled,  and  with  which  it  is  at 
essential  enmity.  Naturally,  therefore,  common  men 
hate  a  new  idea,  and  are  disposed  more  or  less  to  ill 
treat  the  original  man  who  brings  it.''  This  is  not  to 
be  wondered  at.  A  carpenter  with  hammer  and  saw, 
in  the  opinion  of  its  former  owner  devastating  the  old 
mansion,  is  yet  not  more  ruthless  than  this  new  idea 
at  work  upon  the  mental  furbishings  of  the  past.  Its 
havoc  is  like  unto  physical  injury. 

They  are  Alarmed.  —  They  see  here  an  attempt  to 
set  at  naught  the  group  habits,  these  being  their  most 
precious  conserving  agency,  the  social  cement  which 
holds  each  man  to  an  allotted  task  within  his  profession 
and  his  class,  the  enormous  fl3nvheel  which  alone 
insures  uniformity  and  regularity.  For  these  habits 
are  based  upon  what  has,  to  all  appearances,  been  done 
safely  many  times.  Security,  apparently,  is  ever  on 
the  side  of  the  backward  look. 

The  innovator  would  walk  the  hitherto  untrodden 
path,  a  venture  fraught  with  danger  not  only  to  himself, 
but  to  those  with  whom  he  lives.  He  offers,  even  urges, 
uncertainty  and  dread .  Is  this  necessarily  so  ?  Safe  inno- 
vation, the  accurate  positing  of  oneself  into  the  unknown, 

*  Physics  and  Politics,  163-164. 


CRANK  OR  GENIUS?  261 

depends  upon  knowledge  and  foresight.  Until  promised 
land  shall  have  become  as  accurately  plotted  as  ancestral 
fields,  the  new  will  continue  synonymous  with  the  in- 
secure ;  and  such  wisdom,  it  is  safe  to  say,  will  not  be 
brought  about  in  our  time. 

They  are  Repelled.  —  Their  reigning  set  of  values  the 
group  believes  to  be  violated.  These  may  be  economic 
values,  threatened  by  the  mining  promoter,  the  stock 
jobber,  the  spendthrift,  the  burglar.  Or  political  values 
may  be  brought  to  the  fore,  jeopardized  by  the  "  bag 
man,"  the  demagogue,  the  lobbyist,  the  "  boss."  Or 
again  it  may  be  (esthetic  values,  trampled  upon  by  the 
boor,  the  newly  rich,  the  artist  freak,  the  gaudy  fash- 
ioned. Or  ethical  values,  perhance,  are  endangered  by 
the  franchise  getter  who  tenders  two  hundred  thousand 
for  the  new  church  edifice,  the  corporation  lawyer  with 
legislative  position,  the  contractor  on  the  board  of  edu- 
cation, the  wine-bibber  in  the  cabinet.  These  men, 
no  doubt,  are  extreme  examples,  and  it  may  seem  not 
difficult,  perhaps,  for  groups  to  set  their  faces  as  flint 
against  them.  Yet  similarly  stoned  they  the  prophets. 
It  is  the  man  now  a  misfit,  good  or  bad,  who  repels  his 
fellow  group  members,  the  future  alone  being  able  to 
rank  him  definitely  fool  or  genius. 

About  its  innovator,  this  misfit  who  causes  pain, 
alarm,  and  repulsion,  his  organization  would  throw  its 
noose.  Its  repression,  indicated  by  coldness,  criticism, 
withholding  funds,  denunciation,  ridicule,  contempt,  hatred, 
in  fact,  if  considered  necessary,  by  the  use  of  every  device 
of  social  control,  bears  in  upon  him.  The  concrete  pro- 
cess is  illustrated  in  all  biographies  and  set  forth  in  every 
daily  paper. 

Having  examined  its  causes,  we  turn  now  to  the  second 
part  of  our  inquiry,  how  high  shall  this  opposition  mount. 
Two  factors  are  here  involved,  one  being  the  width  of 


262  THE  AROUSING  OF  OPPOSITION 

variation  which  it  is  sought  to  impose.  Should  the  immi- 
gration question,  for  example,  be  under  discussion,  the 
legislator  who  advocated  a  stricter  disease  test  would 
naturally  arouse  less  opposition  than  he  who  would  refuse 
entrance  to  any  alien  whatever.  Analyzing  this  factor, 
the  width  of  variation,  as  it  appears  in  practice,  we  find 
it  normally  represented  by  three  different  elements. 

Firstj  the  Speed  Element.  —  The  reforming  Emperor 
Joseph  II  of  Austria,  a  zealot  penetrated  by  eighteenth- 
century  ideas  as  to  the  duties  of  an  absolute  monarch, 
began  to  carry  out  his  measures  in  a  fearless  and  almost 
revolutionary  spirit.  He  ran  new  district  lines  through 
his  domain  irrespective  of  the  various  nationaUties, 
refused  to  be  crowned  king  of  Hungary,  would  not  sum- 
mon the  Hungarian  diet,  and  proclaimed  German  as  the 
official  language.  Among  other  reforms,  he  abolished 
serfdom,  established  common  tribunals,  softened  the 
penal  code,  issues  new  codes  based  on  the  principle  that 
all  citizens  are  equal  before  the  law,  transferred  the 
censorship  of  books  from  the  clergy  to  laymen  of  liberal 
sympathies,  granted  complete  freedom  to  the  press, 
and  issued  an  edict  of  toleration,  guaranteeing  freedom 
of  worship  to  all  Protestants  and  to  members  of  the 
Greek  church.  He  instituted  pubHc  libraries  and  obser- 
vatories, foimded  a  medical  college,  a  university,  and 
schools  for  the  middle  classes,  and  encouraged  art  by 
offering  prizes.  He  fostered  industry  and  trade  by 
destroying  many  monopolies,  aiding  in  the  establish- 
ment of  new  manufactures,  making  Fiume  a  free  harbor, 
and  opening  the  Danube  to  his  subjects  from  its  source 
to  the  Black  Sea.^  In  fact,  as  we  ponder  the  manifold 
activities  of  Joseph  II,  the  speed  at  which  he  brought 
about  reforms,  one  is  tempted  to  scorn  the  clumsy  mil- 
lion-headed Demos  and  long  for  an  abrupt,  Jovian 
*  Cf.  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  300-302. 


CHANGES  SLOWLY  CONSUMMATED      263 

intervention,  ourselves  perhaps,  at  least  our  hero,  as 
the  intervener.    Joseph  II  was  such  an  efl&dency  expert ! 

All  his  changes  were  well  meant,  but  the  emperor,  in 
the  ardor  of  his  convictions,  had  not  developed  the  skill- 
ful and  sympathetic  subordinates  required  to  carry  his 
good  intentions  into  fruitful  practice,  nor  did  he  realize 
how  far  he  had  shot  ahead  of  the  prevailing  sentiment 
of  his  people.  Discontent  soon  manifested  itself  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  monarchy ;  there  was  rebellion 
in  Tyrol,  furious  conflicts  in  Hungary  between  peasantry 
and  nobles,  persistent  opposition  in  the  Austrian  Nether- 
lands, a  feeling  of  license  and  dread  throughout  the 
empire.  So  precarious  was  Joseph's  position  that  he 
had  to  imdo  almost  everything  he  had  attempted  to 
accomplish  during  the  previous  nine  years;  and  the 
monarch  who  hoped  to  have  regenerated  a  people,  in  his 
last  days  was  rendered  miserable  by  the  conviction 
that  his  career  had  been  a  failure. 

Thoroughgoing  changes  must  needs  be  slow ;  the  mind 
is  not  a  mushroom  growth,  and  the  heritage  of  any  or- 
ganization has  been  builded  bit  by  bit.  A  rapid  pace 
within  a  relatively  slow-moving  organization  necessarily 
means  increase  of  friction. 

Second,  the  Interest  Element.  —  Any  man  whose  life  span 
is  long  will  at  some  stage  of  his  career  be  almost  certain 
to  be  opposed,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  arc  of  the  indi- 
vidual mind  cannot  possibly  he  superimposed  in  its  entirety 
upon  that  of  an  organization.  Usually  these  arcs  coincide 
for  a  brief  period ;  theoretically,  they  touch  only  at  one 
point.  A  statistical  investigation  will  make  this  truth 
clearer.^ 

1  This  investigation  was  undertaken  during  my  senior  year  as  an 
undergraduate  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  the  results,  of  which 
the  following  is  a  summary,  entitled  Correlation  between  Periods  of 
Reformation  Activity  and  the  Leadership  of  Young  Men,  1909,  are  on  file 


264  THE  AROUSING  OF  OPPOSITION 

^  In  society  innovations  are  always  at  battle  with  folk- 
ways? No  advance  would  be  possible  were  this  not 
true,  for  progress  consists  in  an  orderly  substitution  of 
the  less-adapted  old  by  the  more-serviceable  new.  But 
this  substitution,  though  gradual,  is  subject  to  pulsa- 
tions. ^At  times,  conservatism  dominates,  and  things 
remain  pretty  much  as  they  are;  at  other  times,  pro- 
gressivism  secures  the  ascendancy"^  and  a  period  of  un- 
usually rapid  change  follows.  ^ During  these  reformation 
epochs  what  age  of  men  rise  to  positions  of  authority  ? 
Selecting  ten  great  periods  of  reform  as  representa- 
tive,^ in  each  reform  choosing  the  twelve  leading  men 
directing  it,^  tabulating  the  ages  of  these  men,^  and  com- 
paring them  with  the  average  ages  of  non-reformers, 
national  leaders  during  quiet  epochs,  selected  in  essen- 
tially the  same  way,  the  results  have  been  foimd  to  be 
as  follows :  'J 

at  the  University  Library.  Mr.  Brooks  Adams,  in  his  book  The  Theory 
of  Social  Revolutions,  published  in  1913,  advances  a  much  similar 
hypothesis,  stated  in  these  words:  "No  established  type  of  mind  can 
adapt  itself  to  changes  in  environment,  even  in  slow-moving  civilizations, 
as  fast  as  environments  change.  Thus  a  moment  arrives  when  the  minds 
of  any  given  dominant  type  fail  to  meet  the  demands  upon  them  and  are 
superseded  by  a  younger  type,  which  in  turn  is  set  aside  by  another 
still  younger,  imtil  the  limit  of  the  administrative  genius  of  that  partic- 
ular race  has  been  reached.    Then  disintegration  sets  in." 

1  Commencing  with  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  161 7  it  includes 
the  most  important  movements  since  then,  closing  with  the  Turkish 
Revolution  of  1909. 

*  A  much  larger  list  was  first  compiled,  and  from  this  list  were  taken 
the  twelve  to  whom  most  space  had  been  devoted  in  the  biographical 
cyclopedia. 

'  This  proved  to  be  the  most  difficult  of  all,  the  deciding  upon,  as  a 
basis  for  finding  his  age,  the  particular  time  at  which  each  individual  was 
exerting  upon  his  period  a  maximum  influence.  In  the  case  of  a  reformer 
this  would  not  necessarily  mean  the  maximum  influence  of  his  entire 
life,  but  simply  of  the  reformation  period  in  which  he  took  part.  The 
decision,  though  difficult,  is  essential,  for  it  would  surely  be  unscientific 
to  compare  their  entire  life  spans,  and  manifestly  impossible  to  detect 
the  first  entrance  into  consciousness  of  the  reformation  impulse. 


THE  AGES  OF  LEADERS  265 

The  Protestant  Reformation  was  led  by  zealous  church- 
men whose  average  age  was  thirty-eight;^  but  at  other 
times  the  church  has  moved  quietly  along  under  the 
careful  hand  of  sixty-six. ^ 

Men  of  forty-two  arose  to  leadership  during  the 
Puritan  Revolution,'  leaving  it  to  men  of  sixty- three  to 
guide  England  during  quiet  times.* 

Our  own  forefathers,  in  the  Revolution  of  1776,  aver- 
aged less  thanl  forty  years  of  age ;  ^  our  second  group  of 

*  Luther  43,  Melanchthon  30,  Calvin  40,  Zwingli  42,  Knox  47,  Carl- 
stadt  41,  Hutten  30,  Bucer  45,  Latimer  49,  Farel  41,  Hamilton  24,  and 
Osiander  24.     Average  age  38. 

2  Leo  IX  50,  Gregory  157,  Gregory  VII  58,  Innocent  III  46,  Nicholas 
V  54,  Julius  II  65,  Leo  X  42,  Adrian  63,  Clement  VII  54,  Pius  X  (Sarto) 
68,  Gotti  69,  Oreglia  75,  Rampolla  60,  Svampa  52,  Venmetelli  69.  Aver- 
age 66. 

In  this  list  of  fifteen,  four  are  names  of  the  most  important  popes 
during  the  long  history  of  the  Church,  five  held  office  during  or  near 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  the  tenth  is  that  of  the  late  pope,  while 
the  remaining  five  were  his  closest  competitors  in  the  papal  election.  The 
age  of  the  pope  is  given  at  the  date  midway  between  his  election  and 
death.  It  also  appears  from  the  above  list  that  the  average  ages  of  the 
popes  is  55.7  years,  almost  eleven  years  less  than  the  general  average 
for  the  entire  fifteen.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  sev- 
eral of  these  popes  were  vigorous  reformers  too.  For  example,  Innocent 
III,  whose  aggressive  policies  extended  papal  authority  more  widely 
than  ever  before,  drew  forth  this  comment  upon  his  election  at  the  age 
of  37,  **Alas,  the  Pope  is  too  young:  help.  Lord,  thy  Christendom." 
And  that  it  is  the  policy  to  elect  old  men  is  seen  in  the  cardinals'  refusal 
at  the  recent  conclave  to  elect  the  popular  and  efficient  Rampolla,  giv- 
ing as  a  reason,  "He  is  too  young;  he  can  wait  until  next  time."  Too 
young  at  sixty ! 

^  Cromwell  42,  Eliot  49,  Hampden  47,  Holies  42,  Hyde  32,  Ireton  30, 
Lenthall  50,  Pym  57,  Prynne  41,  Strode  42,  Waller  44,  and  Vane  28. 
Average  age  42. 

*  Pitt  59,  Melbourne  59,  Peel  54,  Russell  64,  Derby  62,  Aberdeen  70, 
Palmerton  76,  Disraeli  73,  Gladstone  72,  Salisbury  65,  Rosebery  47, 
Campbell-Bannerman  70,  Asquith  (1909)  56.  Average  63.6.  The  date 
selected  for  arriving  at  the  ages  of  these  prime  ministers  has  been  the 
year  midway  between  their  accession  to  ofl&ce  and  the  closing  of  their  term. 

^  John  Adams  40,  Samuel  Adams  49,  Benedict  Arnold  36,  Benjamin 
FraiJdin  72,  Nathanael  Greene  39,  Patrick  Henry  29,  John  Jay  33, 
Thomas  Jefferson  33,  John  Paul  Jones  32,  Lafayette  24,  Robert  Morris 
47,  Washington  44.    Average  39.8. 


266  THE  AROUSING  OF   OPPOSITION 

reformers,  some  seventy-five  years  later,  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Agitators,  averaged  forty-one ;  ^  while  at  other 
times  American  destiny  has  been  intrusted  to  men 
averaging  well  above  fifty-three.^ 

Liberty,  EquaHty,  Fraternity,  were  secured  in  the 
French  Revolution  by  a  group  averaging  only  thirty- 
eight  and  a  half,^  though  at  other  times  French  leaders 
have  averaged  over  fifty-nine.^ 

The  Regeneration  of  Prussia  was  wrought  by  men  of 
forty-six  and  six  tenths  years  ^ ;  quiet  epochs  see  men  of 
sixty-one  and  eight  tenths  ^  advance  to  places  of  re- 
sponsibility. 

1  J.  G.  Biraey  48,  John  Brown  48,  Cassius  Clay  40,  Frederick  Douglass 
35,  William  Lloyd  Garrison  26,  Joshua  Giddings  53,  Elijah  Lovejoy  35, 
Lucretia  Mott  47,  Wendell  Phillips  28,  Gerritt  Smith  53,  Charles  Storrs 
38,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  41.     Average  age  41. 

*  The  lists  for  United  States  include  the  presidents  and  eighteen 
speakers  of  the  house,  the  age  given  being  that  midway  in  their  term 
of  ofl&ce.  When  this  makes  a  half  year  it  is  rated  a  year  in  every 
other  instance.  Washington  61,  John  Adams  64,  Jefferson  62,  Madison 
62,  Monroe  63,  Adams  60,  Jackson  66,  Van  Buren  57,  Harrison  66, 
Tyler  53,  Polk  53,  Taylor  65,  Fillmore  51,  Pierce  51,  Buchanan  68, 
Lincoln  54,  Johnson  59,  Grant  51,  Hayes  57,  Garfield  50,  Arthur  53, 
Cleveland  54,  McKinley  56,  Roosevelt  47,  Taft  (191 2)  55.  Average 
age  of  presidents  57.5.  Winthrop  38,  Cobb  35,  Boyd  53,  O'Brien  36, 
Orr  36,  Pennington  64,  Grow  39,  Colfax  43,  Baline  41,  Kerr  48,  Randall 

50,  Keifer  46,  Carlisle  51,  Crisp  48,  Reed  54,  Henderson  61,  Cannon  71. 
Average  age  of  speakers  47.8.     General  average  53.6. 

'  Siey^s  42,  Desmoulins  31,  Mirabeau  41,  Lafayette  34,  Danton  33, 
Marat  49,  Hubert  38,  Dumouriez  53,  Cambon  39,  Robespierre  33,  Camot 
40,  Napoleon  30.    Average  38.5. 

*  Catherine  de  Medici  61,  Admiral  Coligny  52,  Duke  of  Sully  50, 
Cardinal  Richelieu  57,  Cardinal  Mazarin  57,  Colbert  61,  Duke  of  Choiseul 

51,  Turgot  49,  Guizot  60,  Louis  Napoleon  58,  Thiers  75,  MacMahon  68, 
Gr6vy  79,  Sadi  Camot  57,  P6rier  47,  Faure  56,  Loubet  65,  Failli^res  67. 
Average  age  59.4.  The  above  list  comprises  nine  presidents  of  France 
and  an  equal  number  of  statesmen  who  held  positions  of  importance 
during  the  preceding  age. 

'Amdt  42,  Bliicher  69,  Boyen  40,  Clauswitz  31,  Fichte  49,  Gnei- 
senau  51,  Grolman  34,Hardenberg6i,Niebuhr  35,  Schamhorst  56,  Schon 
38,  Stein  54.    Average  46.6. 

*  Ancillon  67,  Kamptz  60,  Schmalz  53,  Witzleben  51,  Wittgenstein  57, 
Wrangle  64,  Von  Moltke  70,  Von  Roon  60,  Bismarck  61,  Von  Capri vi  61, 


REFORMERS  AND  NON-REFORMERS      267 

In  the  modernizing  of  Japan  the  yellow  race  proves 
itself  no  exception  to  the  rule  with  leaders  under  thirty- 
nine,^  nor  is  a  different  result  seen  in  the  Awakening  of 
China  by  men  of  practically  the  same  age.^ 

In  the  last  few  years  the  Revolution  in  Russia  has 
been  the  work  of  men  in  their  forties,^  reformers  whose 
radical  measures  have  been  resisted  by  conservatives  of 
fifty-eight^;  and  in  the  Orient  a  similar  result  is  wit- 
nessed when  the  Yoimg  Turks  are  found  to  be  young 
Turks  indeed,  reformers  of  thirty-two.^ 

Prince  Hohenlohe  78,  Count  von  Bulow  (1909)  60.  Average  age  61.8. 
The  above  list  comprises  six  conservatives  whose  reactionary  leadership 
prolonged  the  struggle  for  a  constitutional  government  from  181 5  until 
the  outbreak  of  revolution  in  1848,  two  important  ministers,  and  the 
four  chancellors  of  Germany. 

^  The  Mikado  27,  Fukuzawa  Youkicki  47,  Ito  Hirobumi  38,  Iwakura 
Tomoni  43,  Itagaki  Taisuke  40,  Kido  Takayoshi  43,  Mori  Arinori  33, 
Okubo  Toshimichi  44,  Okuma  Shigenobu  34,  Saigo  Takamori  47,  Shibu- 
sawa  Erchi  33,  Yamada  Akiyoshi  37.     Average  age  38.8. 

Owing  to  the  inadequate  historical  materials  at  hand  regarding 
Japan,  China,  and  Turkey,  in  the  case  of  reforms  in  these  countries  the 
reformers  are  given  while  quiet-epoch  leaders  are  omitted :  the  averages 
for  these  countries  are  later  compared  with  the  averages  for  the  other 
countries. 

'  Chiang  Ping  Lun  30,  Chin  Tien  Whah  25,  Emperor  Kang-shu  24, 
Julen  Khelan  Yenfu  40,  Kang  Yu  Wei  40,  Lee  Hung  Chang  60,  Liang- 
Chi-chio  26,  Ma  Liang  70,  Sun  Yat  Sun  45,  The  Prince  Regent  27,  Yang 
Tu  30,  Yuon  Li  Kan  48.  Average  age  38.7.  The  above  ages  are  esti- 
mates kindly  furnished  me  by  Chinese  students. 

'  Aladin  33,  Alexander  Petrunkievitch  62,  Alexinsky  32,  Father  Gapoy 
67,  Father  Petrof  45,  Gerus  32,  Herzenstein  55,  Jollos  46,  Maxim  Gorke 
38,  Osol  32,  Prince  Michael  Trubeczkoi  52,  Vinaver  43.  Average  age 
44,7.  Numbers  5,  6,  8  and  10  are  estimates  furnished  me  by  Russian 
students. 

*  Admiral  Alexiff  62,  Grand  Duke  Alexis  Alesandrovitch  56,  Prince 
Michael  Khilhoff  63,  Grand  Duke  Michael  Nicholaivitch  64,  Grand  Duke 
Nicolas  Nicholaivitch  50,  Plehve  60,  Pobiedonostseff  79,  Grand  Duke 
Sergius  (died  1905)  48,  Stolypin  46,  Trepoff  51,  Grand  Duke  Vladimir 
59.    Average  age  58. 

*  Enver  Bey,  Niyazi,  Ahmed  Riza  Pasha,  Djavid  Talleat  Bey,  Achmet 
Bey,  Kiamil  Pasha,  Hilmi  Pasha,  Miniassi  Befik  Bey,  Ali,  Selim.  Aver- 
age age  (estimated)  32.  For  this  estimate  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Mr. 
Charles  Roden  Buxton,  author  of  Turkey  in  Revolution^  and  Dr.  James 


268  THE   AROUSING  OF  OPPOSITION 

The  results  may  be  summarized  in  the  following  table 
^     AGES  OF  REFORMERS  AND   NON-REFORMERS 


Reformers 

Non- 
reformers 

Difference 
IN  Ages 

Protestant  Reformation 

38 

66 

28 

Puritan  Revolution 

42 

63.6 

21.6 

Revolution  of  1776 

39-8 

54.5 

14.7 

French  Revolution 

38.5 

59-4 

20.9 

Regeneration  of  Prussia 

46.6 

61.8 

15-2 

Anti-Slavery  Agitators 

41 

54.S 

13.5 

Modernizing  of  Japan 

38.8 

Awakening  of  China 

38.7 

Revolution  in  Russia 

44-7 

58 

13.3 

Turkey 

32 

J 


Fig.  13. 


The  above  table  makes  evident  that  in  every  case 
reformers  are  decidedly  younger  men  than  non-reformers'^ 
No  particular  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  amount  of  dif- 
ference shown.  It  is  realized  that  strict  statistical 
accuracy  is  impossible  in  an  investigation  of  this  nature, 
and  discriminating  critics,  no  doubt,  will  find  reason  to 
disagree  on  several  points  in  the  foregoing  tables.  In 
no  case,  however,  is  it  believed  that  such  disagreement 
would  seriously  affect  the  results.  For[it  is  felt  certain 
that  any  one  who  works  through  similar  material  will 
concur  in  the  main  with  the  conclusions  from  this  evi- 
dence presented,  the  statement  of  which  is  as  follows : 

(i)  Reformers  do  not  differ  materially  in  age  from  one 
period   to   another. '\    Those   who    led    the   Protestant 

L.  Barton,  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
Boston,  Massachusetts. 


YOUTHFUL  REFORMERS  269 

Revolution  four  hundred  years  ago  were  approximately 
the  same  age  as  the  reformers  of  later  times. 

r(2)  Daring  young  leaders  plunge  a  nation  into  the 
foment  of  change;  conversely,  new  conditions  call  forth 
aggressive  innovators."]  Henry  Clay,  at  thirty-four,  the 
head  of  a  band  of  bold  young  Western  leaders,  brought 
on  the  war  of  181 2.  Thirty-nine  years  later,  grown 
conservative,  the  Great  Pacificator  championed  the 
Compromise  of  1850.  With  the  passing  of  Clay,  Web- 
ster, and  Calhoun,  new  leaders  rose  whose  advent  was 
followed  by  the  Civil  War. 

C  (3)  Youthful  reformers  later  in  life  become  conserv- 
ative,^ Japan's  marvelous  progress  was  stimulated 
thirty  years  ago  by  the  same  men  who,  now  grown  con- 
servative, are  opposing  the  reforms  which  younger 
leaders  are  desiring  to  consummate.  Hence  arises  that 
most  pathetic  figure,  the  once  ardent  reformer  now 
through  age  transformed  in  temper,  yet  unable  to  realize 
that  what  he  advocates  has  been  superseded  long  since, 
and  sorely  wounded  by  the  darts  of  "  mossbackism  "  he 
once  hurled  at  others.  He  is  an  alien  prophet  whose 
shouts  of  "  Lo,  here !  "  "  Lo,  there !  "  no  one  heeds. 
I  (4)  The  old  men  occasionally  found  active  as  reformers 
are  usually  following  their  youthful  bent.  ^  Pym,  given 
in  the  foregoing  lists  as  a  reformer  at  fifty-seven,  broke 
with  Charles  I  twenty  years  earlier,  a  reformer  at  thirty- 
seven.  Bliicher,  given  as  a  reformer  at  sixty-nine,  then 
displayed  the  same  aggressive  willfulness  as  at  eighteen. 
Kiamil  Pasha,  a  Young  Turk  of  eighty-four,  has  always 
had  very  liberal  ideas.  And  Petrunkievitch's  age  of 
sixty-two  seems  difficult  to  reconcile  until  the  fact 
appears  that  he  has  been  an  active  agitator  for  thirty- 
eight  years,  a  reformer  at  twenty-four. 
C  (5)  Reforms  are  wrought  by  youth;  old  age  governs 
during  quiet  epochs. 1    This  is  the  main  conclusion  to 


270  THE  AROUSING  OF  OPPOSITION 

be  drawn  from  the  foregoing  evidence.    Its  correlative 
may  be  stated  as  follows : 

C  (6)  The  degree  of  conservatism  characterizing  an  epoch 
may  he  roughly  measured  by  the  ages  of  its  leaders  J  The 
requirement,  it  will  be  noted  from  our  present  point  of 
view,  is  set  by  the  many,  the  multitude  who,  contributing 
sentiment  and  stability,  secures  its  ends  through  a 
shrewd  choice  of  leaders.  The  man  shall  not  be  chosen 
whose  years  declare  him  out  of  touch  with  the  current 
need. 

It  is  this  last  point,  this  being  in  touch  with  current 
need,  and  not  merely  the  element  of  age,  which  at 
bottom  the  foregoing  investigation  has  emphasized. 
This  gives  interest,  and  interest  insures  the  readier  in- 
corporation of  all  variations,  that  haven  sought  through 
storm  and  stress  by  those  who  direct.  But  because  the 
individual  passes  from  youth  through  maturity  into 
old  age  more  rapidly  than  does  his  organization,  he  is  nec- 
essarily out  of  touch  part  of  the  time  and  hence  boimd 
to  arouse  opposition. 

Third,  the  Distance  between  Fact  and  Representation.  — 
When  a  leader  eludes  suspicion  and,  deftly  sidestepping 
judgment,  appeals  direct  to  credulity,  he  often  pushes 
expectancy  to  strange  extremes.  But  a  collapse  is 
inmiinent  at  any  time.  The  career  of  John  Law  in 
France  is  a  notable  instance  of  this  sort. 

Some  three  hundred  years  ago.  Law,  a  handsome,  dig- 
nified, and  gentlemanly  Scotchman,  proposed  to  the 
Parisians  a  most  enticing  financial  scheme.  Its  basis 
was  inflation,  yet  it  took  the  French  by  storm.  A  frenzy 
for  speculation  ensued.  Professional  speculators,  cred- 
itors of  the  government,  noblemen,  churchmen,  com- 
moners, and  servants  whom  their  suddenly  acquired 
fortune  had  filled  with  the  hope  of  rivaling  their  masters, 
all  classes  cherishing  the  same  illusions,  crowded  into  the 


CAREER  OF  JOHN  LAW  271 

fwe  Guincampaix.  As  the  rents  increased  manyfold, 
residences  were  converted  into  offices  by  the  stock- 
jobbers, and  merchants  gave  up  their  shops ;  a  cobbler, 
converting  his  stall  into  an  office  by  placing  in  it  some 
stools,  a  table,  and  a  writing  desk,  rented  it  for  two 
hundred  francs  a  day. 

The  brokers,  organized  into  regular  swindling  com- 
panies, "  bulHsh  "  or  "  bearish  "  at  the  sound  of  a  bell 
signaled  from  the  office  of  one  Papillon,  reaped  a  harvest 
never  since  equaled,  even  by  Wall  Street.  A  million 
francs  were  sometimes  made  in  a  day.  Servants  at 
times  became  suddenly  rich  as  their  masters,  it  being 
related  that  one  of  them,  meeting  his  master  in  the 
rain,  stopped  his  carriage  to  offer  him  a  seat.  In  a  few 
months  all  were  fascinated  by  this  wild  illusion.  The 
shares  had  mounted  to  thirty  times  the  original  price, 
and  no  one  stopped  to  consider  what  was  the  foundation 
of  this  enormous  wealth. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  wondering  crowd.  Law,  as  the 
author  of  such  prodigies,  became  a  chimerical  being, 
superhuman,  a  demigod  to  be  reverently  worshiped 
by  the  throngs,  overwhelmed  with  flatteries  in  prose 
and  verse,  his  very  servants  courted,  and  he  himself 
so  beset  with  adulation  that  he  had  no  repose,  day  or 
night. 

The  collapse  was  sharp.  An  acute  financial  crisis 
spread  ruin  among  the  investors.  The  suddenly 
made  rich  were  even  more  suddenly  beggared,  and  all 
would  find  a  scapegoat.  Law's  house  was  mobbed,  his 
carriage  broken  to  pieces  by  street  rioters,  he  himself 
insulted  and  intrigued  against.  "  I  am,"  he  said,  "  like 
the  chicken  with  golden  eggs,  who  was  worth  no  more, 
dead,  than  a  common  fowl."  ^ 

All  movements  in  which  feeling  predominates  are 

*  Thiers,  John  Law  and  the  Mississippi  Bubble,  especially  Ch.  v. 


272  THE  AROUSING  OF  OPPOSITION 

liable  to  mount  to  unstable  heights.  The  lynching 
mob,  the  rioting  strikers,  the  frenzied  revivalists,  the 
political  paraders,  the  ardent  revolutionists,  breed  leaders 
who  fear  to  be  moderate.  Social  sanity  for  the  time 
being  is  abandoned.  But  not  for  long.  Rationality 
in  the  end  is  co-worker  with  efficiency ;  a  reaction  soon 
or  later  is  certain  to  occur,  and  a  new  leader,  a  man  of 
reason,  thereupon  is  thoughtfully  crowned. 

We  have  now  considered  the  width  of  variation,  con- 
ditioned as  it  is  by  the  speed  limit,  the  interest  element, 
and  the  distance  between  fact  and  representation;  it 
remains  in  conclusion  to  note  the  second  of  the  two 
factors  upon  which  the  height  of  opposition  depends, 
viz.  the  degree  of  force  with  which  these  variations  are 
urged.  The  executive  intent  on  increasing  output  or 
lowering  expenses  or  introducing  his  new  scheme  of 
management  cannot  alone  batter  down  the  inertia  of 
habit-bound  men  nor  withstand  their  general  opposi- 
tion. But  he  can  win  a  few  to  his  cause,  with  these  few 
force  in  other  adherents,  until  his  party,  swelled  into  a 
dominant  power,  overrides  the  none  too  vigilant  major- 
ity. This  is  all  the  more  readily  possible  because  men 
normally  differentiate  into  interest  groups,  gangs, 
cliques,  factions,  sects,  parties,  and  classes.  While 
owning  a  general  allegiance  to  the  entire  organization, 
these  grant  special  allegiance  to  the  particular  part  with 
which  their  interests  are  closest. 

Such  were  the  intriguers  of  Florence,  the  barbarian 
invaders  of  Rome,  the  followers  of  Luther  in  Germany, 
the  Committee  of  Safety  during  the  French  Revolution, 
the  trade  unions  and  the  trusts  of  our  day,  the  special 
interest  groups  which  spring  up  in  church  conferences, 
factories,  or  commercial  concerns.  These  inner  groups, 
loyally  devoted  to  the  man  who  furthers  their  cause, 


SPECIAL  INTERESTS  273 

be  he  president  serving  stockholders  though  "  the  public 
be  damned,"  or  boss  plentifully  feeding  the  system, 
serve  as  an  organized  form  of  repression  upon  the  larger 
group  outside. 

The  larger  group  has  always  viewed  with  concern  the 
development  within  itself  of  an  apparently  revolutionary 
organization,  waxing  in  prosperity  and  power,  whose 
success  is  accounted  ominous.  And  the  force  visited 
upon  this  larger  group,  it  has  sought  to  hurl  back  upon 
the  aggressor.  Thus  has  developed  the  fraud,  pomp, 
prescription,  and  superstition  with  which  a  ruling  class 
would  master  the  masses,  and  similarly  is  to  be  explained 
the  pennant- winning  team  and  peerless  sales  and  factory 
organizations  torn  with  internal  dissension.  But  by 
this  same  means,  this  use  of  force,  groups  of  men  have 
attained  goals  which  otherwise  would  have  remained 
only  visions. 

The  deduction  to  be  drawn  from  this  chapter,  in  conse- 
quence, is  that  he  who  selects  a  narrow  variation  and 
pushes  it  with  little  force  is  not  necessarily  the  wise  man- 
ager. In  this  way,  it  is  true,  he  meets  with  slight  re- 
sistance, yet  he  never  brings  large  things  to  pass.  A 
far  better  policy  than  no  opposition  is  little  opposition 
in  proportion  to  gains  made,  and,  however  fruitful  the 
variation  and  ready  the  force,  stopping  short  of  being 
overwhelmed.  Due  to  this  aim,  a  knowledge  of  oppo- 
sition's causes  and  possible  height  does  not  serve  peace 
so  much  as  effectiveness. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Why  has  the  introduction  of  scientific  management  often 
been  followed  by  hostility  in  the  shops?  Why  does  organized 
labor  oppose  scientific  management? 

2.  What  American  careers  comparable  to  John  Law's? 


274  THE  AROUSING  OF  OPPOSITION 

3.  Show  that  the  exchange  of  methods  of  advertising  by 
bankers  and  circuses  would  be  mutually  disastrous. 

4.  How  was  it  that  Luther  so  readily  inaugurated  the  Refor- 
mation ? 

5.  What  policy  should  be  pursued  in  reference  to  complaints? 

6.  Why  did  Columbus  arouse  opposition,  and  by  what  means 
was  he  opposed  ?    Cyrus  McCormick  ?    William  Jennings  Bryan  ? 

READINGS 

CooLEY,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  Ch.  VH. 
White,  History  oj  the  Warfare  oj  Science  with  Theology,  Ch.  I. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

Competitors 

"Nothing  is  easier  than  to  admit  in  words  the  truth  of  the  uni- 
versal struggle  for  life,  or  more  difl&cult  than  constantly  to  bear 
this  conclusion  in  mind."  —  Charles  Darwin. 

Competition  develops  because  there  are  not  enough 
places  for  all  who  would  rule,  the  various  aspirants 
necessarily  running  afoul  of  one  another.  These  compet- 
itors are  of  two  possible  sorts :  unlike,  as  minister  and 
amusement  manager  vie  for  the  same  man's  presence; 
and  like,  as  when  representative  of  German  bridge 
builder  and  representative  of  American  bridge  builder 
seek  contracts  from  a  South  African  railroad.  A  nec- 
essary preliminary,  therefore,  is  this  classification  of 
one's  opponents. 

attitude  of  contestants 

In  entering  upon  a  contest,  one  may  take  the  initiative, 
or  he  may  leave  this  to  his  opponent,  or  both  may  attack 
simultaneously.  In  other  words,  these  attitudes  are 
presented : 

I.  A  denies  or  opposes  B,  but  B  does  not  deny  or  op- 
pose A}  —  At  times  A  is  the  innovator  intent  on  reshap- 
ing things.  He  looses  the  first  broadside,  because  there 
will  be  no  struggle  until  he  does,  and  waiting  irritates 

*  For  the  phraseology  of  these  terms  I  am  indebted  to  Ross,5oc.  Psy.j 
317,  318.     See  also  Tarde,  La  logique  socicUe,  138-141. 

27s 


276  COMPETITORS 

one  of  his  temperament.  Sometimes  the  shot  he  fires 
is  heard  round  the  world,  as  Luther  in  his  attack  on 
Rome,  Garrison  indicting  slavery,  Jesus  upbraiding 
the  Pharisees;  sometimes  not,  as  millions  of  nameless 
opponents  through  the  centuries  could  testify. 

At  times  B  is  the  innovator,  desiring  for  the  time 
being  only  sufferance  in  order  that,  under  cover,  he  may 
survey  the  field  and  station  his  outposts.  Antony,  a 
meek  and  sorrowing  friend,  a  plain  blunt  man  who 
speaks  right  on,  nears  the  close  of  his  oration  before 
he  defiantly  shouts,  "  Here  was  a  Caesar !  when  comes 
such  another? "  The  nephew  of  Napoleon,  then  a 
penniless  adventurer  backed  only  by  the  prestige  of 
a  great  name,  heralded  on  his  way  to  the  National 
Assembly  by  "  Vive  Louis  Napoleon !  Vive  I'Empereur !  " 
received  by  his  colleagues,  however,  in  deep  silence, 
prefaced  thus  his  maiden  speech :  "  Receive  me  into  your 
ranks,  dear  colleagues.  You  need  not  doubt  that  my 
conduct  will  always  be  inspired  by  respectful  adherence 
to  the  law;  it  will  prove  to  all  who  have  endeavored 
to  traduce  me  that  no  one  is  more  devoted  than  I  to  the 
defense  of  order  and  the  consohdation  of  the  Republic  " 
—  an  adroit  move  toward  the  imperial  honors  he  then 
coveted  and  later  held  as  Napoleon  III.  Powers  in 
the  bud  court  protection  from  the  withering  criticism 
which  later  they  withstand  with  ease. 

Two  policies  similarly  are  open  to  the  well-established. 
It  may  pay  no  attention  whatever  to  the  newcomer, 
thereby  suggesting  the  latter's  insignificance  and  its 
own  self-sufficiency.  Or  it  may  destroy  the  competitor 
in  his  chrysalid  state,  applying  in  thoroughgoing  fashion 
the  view  that  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of 
cure.  Obviously,  the  practical  wisdom  of  eaci  policy 
depends  upon  a  correct  estimation  of  the  competitor  in 
relation  to  oneself.    If  he  is  destined  to  be  harmless,  let 


ATTACKING  THE  COMPETITOR  277 

him  destroy  himself  or  leave  the  deed  to  others.  Should 
it  mean  later  a  death  grapple,  wrestle  early.  His  Holi- 
ness the  Pope  might  well  have  chided  himself  over  his 
first  dilatory  tactics  with  Luther;  so  might  the  trust 
magnate  chide  himself  should  he  snap  up  the  factory 
built  merely  for  competitive  blackmail. 

In  this  type  of  contest  there  is  not  only  a  utilization 
of  the  time  element,  because  of  which  in  reality  many  a 
victory  has  been  won  before  the  first  shot,  but  there  is 
often  the  added  advantage  of  devolving  upon  an  oppo- 
nent the  initiative  of  conflict.  Caesar  so  maneuvered 
that,  while  himself  keeping  on  legal  ground,  he  compelled 
Pompey  to  declare  war  and  that  as  a  revolutionary 
leader  opposed  in  his  tactics  by  a  majority  of  the  senate. 
The  advantage  is  considerable,  often  representing  the 
sole  difference  between  a  waxing  and  a  waning  cause. 
The  assailer  courts  repulsion,  the  defender  tends  to 
draw  aid  imto  himself. 

2.  A  and  B  mutually  deny  and  oppose  One  Another. 
—  Each  side  boldly  asserts  its  claims,  declares  also  its 
absolute  incompatibility  with  the  other.  Temporizing 
poKcies  thereupon  are  abandoned,  a  decision  must  be 
made  and  adhered  to,  and  an  alignment  thereupon 
takes  place.  Each  individual  comes  to  realize  not  only 
his  own  opinion,  but  also  that  there  are  others  holding 
contrary  views.  This  in  turn  intensifies  his  own  con- 
viction, widens  the  breach  between  himself  and  opposers, 
and  makes  him  a  zealot  in  uniting  all  wavering  ones  to 
his  cause.  The  attack  on  Sumter  unified  North  against 
South,  South  against  North,  and  this  was  followed  by 
the  dislodging  of  one  border  state  after  another  from  its 
assumed  position  of  neutrality.  The  war  with  Spain 
united  all  factions  behind  a  Republican  administration 
and  did  much  to  recement  North  and  South;  the 
struggle  against  corrupt  rings  has  shown  marvelous 


278  COMPETITORS 

power  to  weld  diverse  elements  in  our  municipalities; 
the  sales  force,  brushing  against  the  enemy  day  by  day, 
possesses  a  determined  loyalty  to  the  house  not  grown 
among  factory  operatives  who  know  not  what  it  is  all 
about.^  When  Greek  meets  Greek  every  one  does  know 
what  it  is  about,  and  along  the  rank  and  file  all  is  expec- 
tancy. It  is  pleasant  to  achieve,  but  never  so  stirring 
as  when  others  seek  that  which  we  would  have. 

The  contest  itself  is  carried  on  much  like  a  military 
campaign.  There  is  the  surprise,  the  feint,  the  crushing 
blow,  the  flank  movement,  the  reserve  attack,  the  antic- 
ipatory movement,  even  at  times  not  a  Kttle  of  spy  and 
traitor.  But  good  strategy  demands,  one  must  never 
overlook,  that  at  all  times  one's  resources  be  valued 
not  in  themselves,  but  in  relation  to  the  opponent's,  and 
in  general  the  style  of  contest  be  developed  in  which  our 
best  weapons  are  available,  thus  pitting  strength  against 
weakness. 

COMPETITIVE   WEAPONS 

Since  the  object  of  competition  is  to  win  those  of 
contrary  views  over  to  our  own,  the  place  of  contest 
is  really  within  the  individual  consciousness.  The 
mind,  because  of  its  primitive  credulity,  has  gathered 
to  itself  the  strongest  assortment,  superstitions,  gaudy 
imagery,  odds  and  ends  of  percepts,  concepts  in  all 
stages  of  completion,  a  veritable  jungle  in  which  perforce 
the  fiercest  natural  enemies  often  slumber  undisturbed.^ 

To  such  a  mind  each  competitor  now  addresses  his 
respective  appeal.  Doubt  and  inquiry  are  raised.  Con- 
sciousness is  filled  with  unrest,  prone  to  act  merely 

^  An  interesting  suggestion  comes  from  one  manufacturer  who,  in 
full  view  of  his  factory  windows,  nailed  upon  the  high  board  fence  his 
competitor's  "hide." 

•  James,  Prin.  of  Psy.,  II,  299. 


SECURING  DECISION  279 

because  decision  relieves  the  tension  of  doubt  and  is 
agreeable,  yet  dreading  the  irrevocable  and  hence 
hesitant.  How  is  a  competitor  to  end  this  irresolution 
and  secure  from  the  person's  will  the  decision  he  desires  ? 
Evidently  by  rousing  and  guiding  the  mind,  for  will  is 
merely  the  whole  mind  active} 

Now  the  means  to  do  this  have  been  considered  in 
Part  II  with  such  detail  that  they  need  not  be  further 
discussed.  By  their  use,  the  instincts,  emotions,  and 
intellect  are  stirred,  and  irresolution  passes  into  resolu- 
tion. It  might  seem  that  competition  is  then  at  an 
end,  but  this  step  is  rather  preliminary  than  final.  The 
individual  mind,  acting  upon  its  conviction,  allies  itself 
with  those  of  similar  conviction  and  action,  and  opposes 
those  of  contrary  beliefs.  Competition  is  not  ended 
but  broadened. 

TYPES  OF  CONTEST 

In  this   competition,   every   element  of  motivation 

—  personality,    suggestion,    rewards,    instruction,    etc. 

—  in  reahty  enters  into  combination  or  opposition  with 
every  other  element,  obviously  a  very  complex  proced- 
ure. But  for  the  sake  of  clearer  presentation,  may  not 
these  be  grouped  into  fewer  yet  still  typical  forms  of 
contest?  This  is  possible.  The  various  instinctive 
and  emotional  appeals  may  be  combined  into  one  and 
termed  prestige  ^ ;  the  intellectual  appeals  similarly  may 
be  termed  logic.  In  the  struggle  evolved  by  compe- 
tition, consequently,  these  two  elements  may  give  rise 
to  the  three  following  types  of  contest : 

*  Angell,  Psy.,  379. 

'  Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  141 ;  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  297-299.  Ross' 
use  of  the  term  "merit"  does  not  seem  to  me  justifiable,  since  merit  may 
rest  with  either  side. 


28o  COMPETITORS 

I.  Prestige  against  Prestige.  —  Each  opponent  bedecks 
himself  in  all  possible  prestige  conferring  insignia.  Such 
impressive  adjuncts  as  ponderous  tones,  piercing  eye, 
beetle  brow,  authoritative  carriage,  decorations  granted 
by  imperial  decree,  sword  worn  on  many  a  hard-fought 
field,  are  lavishly  displayed;  though  an  opponent, 
shrewdly  sensing  the  popular  mind,  finds  that  power  also 
adheres  in  the  sack  suit  and  battered  gray  hat,  in  being  a 
plain  man  of  "  the  people  "  or  in  living  close  to  his  men. 

When  in  poHtics  prestige  opposes  prestige,  hired 
"  spellbinders  ''  harangue  whoever  will  hear ;  floods  of 
lithographs,  campaign  buttons,  "  facts  about  those  del- 
egates," becloud  the  issue ;  "  Truth  Tellers  "  track  the 
leading  opponent  from  state  to  state;  in  the  closing 
days  of  the  campaign  men  of  "  influence  ''  invade  the 
doubtful  territory;  at  the  last  moment  a  tremendous 
"  roar  "  is  loosed.  Defeat,  if  experienced,  is  explained 
away,  the  appearance  of  victory  is  maintained;  and 
redoubled,  though  perhaps  quieter,  effort  wards  off  the 
threatened  collapse. 

In  general,  each  side  seeks  to  buttress  up  its  cause 
through  apparent  possession  of  authority,  wealth, 
position,  or  whatever  else  is  hiunanly  desirable.  Cortes 
in  Mexico  was  "  Chief -Justice  and  Captain- General  of 
the  Municipality  of  Vera  Cruz,"  a  mere  fiction  of  his 
own  creation.  William  the  Silent  solemnly  declared 
himself  "  Stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht," 
even  while  another  had  been  appointed  and  legally  he 
himself  was  a  rebel.  Frederick  II,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
pope  a  wicked  and  lost  wanderer,  addressed  himself,  or 
encouraged  his  followers  to  address  him,  in  such  mod- 
est titles  as  "  Vicar  of  God  on  Earth,"  the  "  Reformer 
of  the  Age,"  a  new  "  EHjah  discomfiting  the  priests  of 
Baal."  Bonaparte,  the  plebeian,  contracted  marriage 
with  a  princess,  imperial  blood  for  twenty  generations, 


WEAPONS  WHICH  BEDAZZLE  281 

seeing  to  it,  also,  that  his  coronation  was  graced  by  the 
spiritual  presence  of  His  Holiness  the  Pope.  The 
emperor,  moreover,  by  himself  placing  the  iron  crown 
upon  his  head  in  such  august  presence,  suggested  that 
none  other  earthly  personage  was  so  exalted.  It  is  an 
often-worked  plan.  In  consequence,  current  claims  of 
lineage,  achievements,  wealth,  abiHty,  and  intentions 
frequently  remind  one  of  Mark  Twain's  witty  refutation, 
"  I  find  the  reports  of  my  death  grossly  exaggerated." 

Next  to  being  mighty  oneself  is  to  be  in  close  league 
with  the  mighty ;  one  can  then  at  least  reflect  an  alien 
luster.  So  highly  was  esteemed  the  privilege  of  forming 
a  part  of  Louis  XIV's  society,  that  opportunities  to  ap- 
proach the  king  in  such  menial  capacities  as  domestic 
in  his  household,  as  usher,  cloak  bearer,  or  valet,  even 
in  1789  were  eagerly  purchased  for  thirty,  forty,  at  times 
a  hundred  thousand  livres.  The  ambitious  angler  for 
social  position  flushes  proud  as  she  displays  on  her  card 
tray  pasteboards  from  one  of  the  Smart  Set ;  countless 
humble  shopkeepers  announce  "  Purveyor  to  His  Royal 
Majesty  " ;  the  ward  "  boss  "  passes  around  the  word 
that  he  also  is  backed  by  speakers  and  money  from  a 
"  swell  "  source ;  and  the  rulers  are  legion  who  have 
emphatically  announced,  "  God  is  on  our  side."  The 
implication  is  clear:  What  the  mighty  have  approved 
let  none  other  seek  to  question. 

As  prestige  clashes  with  prestige  it  is  not  in  the  nature 
of  things  a  marshaling  of  arguments.  The  emotions 
rise,  the  contest  degenerates.  Van  Buren's  foes  shouted 
with  furor,  "  Van,  Van,  a  used-up  man  "  ;  Clay's  enemies 
circulated  upon  every  occasion  that  most  vital  of  politi- 
cal lies  —  "  the  bargain  between  Puritan  and  black- 
leg " ;  Lincoln  was  described  as  *'  an  ignorant  country 
lawyer,  reeking  with  filthy  stories  " ;  even  his  more 
temperate  critic  addressed  Daniel  O'Connell  as, 


282  COMPETITORS 

"Scum  condensed  of  Irish  boy ! 
Ruffian  —  coward  —  demagogue ! 
Boundless  liar  —  base  detractor ! 
Nurse  of  murder,  treason's  factor ! 
Spout  thy  filth  —  effuse  thy  slime ! 
Slander  is  in  thee  no  crime." 

Wyclif  s  enemies  called  him  not  merely  a  glutton  when 
he  ate  and  a  hypocrite  when  he  fasted,  but  a  turncoat,  a 
mirror  of  hypocrites,  a  fabricator  of  lies,  John  Wicked- 
believe,  an  instrument  of  the  devil ;  the  pope,  according 
to  Frederick  II,  was  "  a  Pharisee  anointed  with  the  oil 
of  iniquity  and  sitting  in  a  seat  of  corrupt  judgment,  a 
false  vicar  of  Christ  and  deceiving  serpent/'  Charges 
and  counter  charges;  epithets  and  shouts  of  "liar," 
"  scoundrel,"  "  traitor,"  "  thief" ;  lurid  headlines, 
turgid  spellbinders,  fulminations,  claim  the  arena  when 
reason  decamps  and  emotion  rules. 

Some,  of  course,  will  have  no  sympathy  with  such  a 
contest  nor  for  the  means  with  which  it  is  carried  on. 
It  may  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  emotionalized 
men  may  storm  heights  as  well  as  fight  in  the  pit. 

2.  Prestige  against  Logic.  —  The  reign  of  prestige, 
the  executive  learns,  gives  him  an  organization  of  strong 
faith  and  enthusiasm.  But  in  handling  prosaic  details 
it  makes  many  mistakes.  In  fact,  so  complex  has  grown 
the  subordinate's  task  that  well-thought-out  conduct 
alone  will  suffice.  Logic  accordingly  has  some  grounds 
for  brushing  aside  the  claims  of  prestige,  but,  grounds  or 
none,  it  insists  that  arguments  be  produced  and  threshed 
over  in  discussion. 

Now  the  mere  putting  up  of  a  subject  to  discussion, 
with  the  object  of  being  guided  by  its  results,  as  Bage- 
hot  points  out,^  is  "  a  clear  admission  that  that  subject 
is  in  no  degree  settled  by  established  rule,  and  that  men 

*  Physics  of  Politics,  i6i. 


DISCUSSION  283 

are  free  to  choose  it.  It  is  an  admission,  too,  that  there 
is  no  sacred  authority  —  no  one  transcendent  and 
divinely  appointed  man  whom  in  that  matter  the  com- 
munity is  bound  to  obey.  And  if  a  single  subject  or 
group  of  subjects  be  once  admitted  to  discussion,  ere- 
long the  habit  of  discussion  comes  to  be  established,  the 
sacred  charm  of  use  and  wont  to  be  dissolved.  .  .  . 
Once  effectually  submit  a  subject  to  that  ordeal,  and 
you  can  never  withdraw  it  again ;  you  can  never  again 
clothe  it  with  mystery,  or  fence  it  by  consecration ;  it 
remains  forever  open  to  free  choice,  and  exposed  to 
profane  deliberation."  The  prestige  which  flourished 
as  the  green  bay  tree,  under  such  withering  interrogation 
is  shorn  of  its  foliage.  The  remark  of  General  Richelieu, 
himself  a  witness  of  three  successive  reigns,  to  Louis  XVI, 
"  Sire,  under  Louis  XIV  no  one  dared  to  speak  a  word, 
under  Louis  XV  people  spoke  quite  softly,  under  your 
majesty  they  speak  quite  loud  already,"  indicates  the 
normal  degeneration  of  prestige  under  criticism. 

Those  unable  to  justify  themselves  by  fact  dread  dis- 
cussion. For  discussion  deals  ruthless  blows  to  False 
Decretals,  Divine  Right,  Special  Privilege,  the  claim  that 
whatever  is  is  right.  It  unmasks  the  pious  doctrine  that 
slavery  is  justified  by  Biblical  texts,  that  the  sacred  duty 
of  subjects  is  obedience,  that  whoever  bandies  about 
the  words  "  home,"  "  our  country,"  "  God,"  is  thereby 
unassailable.  In  general,  it  ousts  the  long-bearded 
Meriweg  in  favor  of  the  Major  Domus,  and  in  turn 
exchanges  Carolingian  for  him,  in  the  words  of  the  old 
chronicle,  "  whose  miHtary  prowess,  wisdom,  faith, 
mark  as  the  fittest  to  fill  it."  Hence  losing  sides  oppose 
discussion.^ 

Dogma  has  sought  in  every  possible  way  to  curb  rea- 
son. The  Copernican  theory  in  astronomy,  the  Dar- 
*  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  307-308, 


284  COMPETITORS 

winian  theory  in  biology,  the  naturalistic  explanations 
of  volcanoes  and  fossils  and  disease,  the  propounders  of 
all  were  so  hounded  that  here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  church, 
the  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  science.  Aris- 
tocracy buttresses  her  waning  prestige  by  press  censor- 
ship, repression  of  "  rabble "  gatherings,  convenient 
definitions  of  treason,  the  exaltation  of  ignorance,  the 
insertion  of  a  designing  hand  into  the  school  curriculum. 
Privilege  urges  the  sacredness  of  vested  interests,  stig- 
matizes innovation,^  throttles  single-tax  agitators,  de- 
velops a  predatory  press  with  which,  brilliant  editors 
having  chloroformed  their  readers,  the  picking  of  pockets 
may  go  on.  In  such  service,  the  customary  methods 
of  stimulation  and  control  take  on  a  certain  brazenness. 
But  this,  the  executive  says,  is  alien  to  his  own  school 
superintendency  —  or  management  of  factory  or  store. 
Not  so.  His  new  methods,  demonstrably  better,  are 
opposed  by  subordinates  "  without  any  reason  "  and 
scorned  by  competitors  whose  quality  and  "  superiority  " 
were  set  long  since.  And  in  turn,  to  make  the  matter 
personal,  is  not  the  new  plan,  a  demonstrably  better 
plan,  much  less  noteworthy  when  heralded  by  other 
concerns  than  by  the  peerless  organization  or  even  when 
evolved  by  subordinates  instead  of  his  own  wonderful 
initiative? 


1  "Since  the  leisure  class  is  in  great  measure  sheltered  from  the  stress 
of  economic  exigencies,  its  ofl5ce  in  social  evolution  is  to  retard  the  move- 
ment and  to  conserve  what  is  absolescent.  This  conservatism  on  their 
part  is  commonly  explained  as  due  to  a  vested  interest,  of  an  unworthy 
sort,  in  maintaining  present  conditions.  The  truer  explanation  would 
seem  to  be  that  the  wealthy  class  is  not  constrained  to  demand  change, 
and  hence  conservatism,  characterizing  as  it  does  the  wealthier  and 
therefore  more  reputable  portion  of  the  community,  has  acquired  a 
certain  honorific  or  decorative  value.  Conservatism,  being  an  upper- 
class  characteristic,  is  decorous;  and  conversely,  innovation,  being  a 
lower-class  phenomenon,  is  vulgar."  Veblem,  Theory  of  the  Leisure 
Class,  198-200,  adapted. 


A  CONTEST  OF  REASONS  285 

J.  Logic  against  Logic.  —  Each  side  here  aims,  through 
clear  and  cogent  reasoning,  to  produce  conviction.  It 
is  no  mere  contentious  appeal,  a  modicum  of  evidence 
distorted  by  prejudice  and  made  without  real  intention 
of  changing  any  one's  opinion;  but  a  winning  of  the 
intellect  by  clear  thought  and  presentation.  This  clear 
thought,  admirable  alike  in  orator  or  business  manager, 
is  no  chance  product,  but  results  from  a  mastery  of 
analysis.^  From  the  mass  of  detail  the  essential  ideas, 
those  over  which  the  clash  will  come  and  the  result  turn, 
are  sorted  out  and  firmly  held.  These  essential  ideas, 
backed  up  by  facts,  authoritative  opinions,  and  reason- 
ing based  upon  them,  cause  conviction  in  the  opponent's 
mind. 

But  is  not  such  procedure  in  practice  too  fine  spun  for 
any  save  academicians?  It  may  be.  Yet  increasingly 
numerous  is  becoming  that  choice  fruitage  of  civiliza- 
tion, the  rationalized  person.^  He  is  fascinated  neither 
by  the  great  man  nor  the  crowd,  impressed  neither  by 
antiquity  nor  novelty,  but,  open  equally  to  ideas  coming 
from  subordinates  and  superiors,  he  judges  them  only 
by  their  apparent  fitness.     For  him  Hfe  is  always  in 

1  Such  analytic  power  preeminently  characterized  Chief  Justice 
Marshall,  of  whom  one  writer  says,  "So  perfect  is  his  analysis  that  he 
extracts  the  whole  matter,  the  kernel  of  inquiry,  unbroken,  clean,  and 
entire."  Similarly  was  such  power  the  chief  cause  of  Lincoln's  early 
success  as  a  lawyer  and  his  later  astonishing  ability  to  understand  com- 
plex military  situations.  His  mind,  it  is  said,  ran  back  behind  facts, 
principles,  and  all  things,  to  their  origin  and  cause.  Clocks,  omnibuses, 
language,  paddle  wheels,  and  idioms  never  escaped  his  observation  and 
analysis ;  he  must  know  them  inside  and  outside,  upside  and  downside. 
He  was  remorseless  in  his  analysis  of  fact  and  principles.  Woe  be  to 
the  man  who  hugged  to  his  bosom  a  secret  error  if  Lincoln  got  on  the 
chase  of  it.  Time  could  hide  the  error  in  no  nook  or  comer  of  space  in 
which  he  could  not  detect  and  expose  it."  Hemdon  and  Weik,  Life  of 
Lincoln,  HI,  594-595,  cited  by  Baker  and  Huntington,  Principles  of 
Argumentation,  14-15,  adapted. 

2  Cf.  Ross,  Soc.  Psy.,  Ch.  xvi,  especially  the  brilliant  paragraph, 
285-286. 


286  COMPETITORS 

process.  Prices,  materials,  forms  of  organization,  opin- 
ions, even  dogmas,  he  realizes  are  in  the  grip  of  incessant 
change.  Accordingly  he  mistrusts  long-standing  prac- 
tices as  being  out  of  touch  with  present  requirements, 
keeps  plastic  by  renovating  his  ideas  as  the  years  pass, 
and,  refusing  the  cramp  of  custom,  boldly  posits  the 
standard  of  relativity  as  his  guide. 

It  is  because  of  him,  and  others  of  like  kind,  that  talk, 
mere  "  endless  talk,"  has  ushered  in  an  age  of  progress 
and  redress.  Well  has  it  been  said :  "  It  is  safe  to  sup- 
pose that  one  half  of  the  talk  of  the  world  on  subjects  of 
general  interest  is  waste.  But  the  other  half  certainly 
tells.  We  know  this  from  the  change  in  ideas  from  gen- 
eration to  generation.  We  see  that  opinions  which  at 
one  time  everybody  held  became  absurd  in  the  course 
of  half  a  century,  —  opinions  about  religion  and  morals 
and  manners  and  government.  .  .  .  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  is  talk  —  somebody^s,  anybody's,  every- 
body's talk  —  by  which  these  changes  are  wrought,  by 
which  each  generation  comes  to  feel  and  think  differ- 
ently from  its  predecessor.  No  one  ever  talks  freely 
about  anything  without  contributing  something,  let  it 
be  ever  so  little,  to  the  unseen  forces  which  carry  the  race 
on  to  its  final  destiny.  Even  if  he  does  not  make  a 
positive  impression,  he  counteracts  or  modifies  some  other 
impression,  or  sets  in  motion  some  train  of  ideas  in  some 
one  else,  which  helps  to  change  the  face  of  the  world.  So 
I  shall,  in  disregard  of  the  great  laudation  of  silence  which 
filled  the  earth  in  the  days  of  Carlyle,  say  that  one  of  the 
functions  of  an  educated  man  is  to  talk,  and,  of  course, 
he  should  try  to  talk  wisely."  ^  It  is  such  talk  as  this 
which  parts  wheat  from  chaff,  and  guarantees  a  harvest 
to  the  executive  whose  logical  grounds  are  superior. 

*  Godkin,  Problems  of  Modern  Democracy,  221-224  passim.  Quoted 
by  Ross,  op.  cii,,  310-311. 


CHOOSING  THE  APPEAL  287 

CHOICE  OF  PRESTIGE   OB   LOGIC 

It  may  have  seemed  that  prestige  is  doomed  when 
logic  appears;  yet  observation  does  not  confirm  this 
view,  nor  does  an  analysis  fail  to  reveal  that  either 
may  in  certain  instances  be  superior.  The  practical 
problem,  consequently,  is  to  note  with  care  these  in- 
stances.   This  will  now  be  done. 

J.  The  Subject  over  which  the  Competition  takes 
Place.  —  This  subject,  a  proposed  tariJff,  a  wider  main 
street,  a  new  tramway,  an  improved  machine,  possibly 
has  some  unusual  argumentative  points.  The  sales- 
man able  to  demonstrate  that  his  office  appliance  cost- 
ing one  hundred  dollars  does  the  work  of  two  six-doUar- 
per-week  clerks,  should  pencil  and  paper  it  before  the 
prospective  buyer.  Suppose  the  subject,  however,  is 
the  poetry  of  Shakespeare,  the  prophetism  of  Dowie, 
the  suffrage  movement,  the  new  dancing,  tea's  supe- 
riority in  taste  over  coffee.  By  what  chain  of  reasoning 
can  it  be  definitely  settled?  None.  Their  respec- 
tive strengths  inhere  in  prestige,  and  by  means  of  it 
they  hope  for  favor  and  survival. 

The  nature  of  the  subject,  however,  is  not  the  sole 
criterion ;  much  depends  also  upon  whether  it  is  new  or 
old,  changing  or  static.  The  old,  well-established,  and 
relatively  static  runs  smoothly  in  the  grooves  of  habit ; 
it  is  the  new  and  changing,  especially  so  if  in  addition 
it  is  important,  which  must  drag  its  adherents  into  the 
unknown  and  over  strange  roads.  And  this  latter 
prestige  has  not  the  power  to  do.  The  intellect,  in- 
stead, is  the  supreme  agent  in  perfecting  new  adaptations, 
and  it  necessarily  is  here  called  into  play.  Once  the 
change  has  been  initiated,  prestige  comes  into  supple- 
ment, perhaps  ultimately  to  assume  entire  charge.  The 
nile  of  effectiveness  therefore  is :  logic  for  the  new  or 


288  COMPETITORS 

rapidly  changing,  prestige  for  the  old  and  relatively 
static. 

2.  The  Persons  upon  whose  Conviction  the  Competi- 
tion Turns.  —  There  are  those  apparently  who  apply 
without  ceasing  the  searching  test  of  merit.  It  does  not 
suflSice  to  them  that  a  thing  is  good.  They  have  adopted 
in  thoroughgoing  fashion  the  viewpoint  of  relativity 
and  the  thing  must  be  better,  demonstratively  better, 
than  possible  others  before  it  wins  their  assent.  Yet 
how  few  have  thus  rationalized  themselves.  It  is,  no 
doubt,  the  ideal  widely  held,  but  are  we  not  flattered 
into  acquiescence  when  some  one  suggests,  "  You,  a 

reasonable  man,  "?    In  fact,  it  could  hardly  be 

otherwise.  Rational  attitudes  are  a  later  fruitage  in 
the  individual  life,  people  being  born  young  and  igno- 
rant and  only  gradually  working  their  way  upward 
through  layer  upon  layer  of  instinctive  and  emotional 
reactions  into  the  clear  light  of  reason.  Moreover, 
there  are  temperamental  differences  which  still  further 
delay  the  transition.  The  Protestants  after  four  hun- 
dred years  of  strife  have  not  destroyed  the  Roman 
church,  nor  have  the  Unitarians  as  yet  proselyted  the 
Methodists;  whisky  and  beer  and  wine  and  temper- 
ance each  have  a  selected,  not  a  chance,  group  of  ad- 
herents. 

Much  depends,  in  addition,  upon  homogeneity  or 
heterogeneity.  Should  the  members  of  the  group  ad- 
dressed be  of  like  nature  and  attainments,  logic  will 
reach  them  with  effectiveness;  arguments  range  from 
complex  abstractness  to  simple  concreteness,  and  hence 
in  skilled  hands  may  be  adjusted  to  any  group.  In 
heterogeneous  organizations,  however,  the  cement  of 
prestige  sets  best.  Its  appeal  harks  back  to  the  sub- 
conscious, a  comparatively  imdifferentiated  racial  expe- 
rience in  which,  when  contrasted  with  the  nimiberless 


APPEALS  COMBINED  289 

gradations  of  reason,  men  are  alike.  Because  it  thus 
has  a  wider  range  with  heterogeneous  groups  of  men 
prestige  is  more  effective. 

J.  The  Sort  of  Action  Desired.  —  Both  prestige  and 
logic  are  able  to  secure  action,  yet  if  either  must  be  used 
alone,  the  latter  is  perhaps  stronger.  Especially  is  this 
true  should  the  person  to  whom  appeal  is  made  be  non- 
suggestible,  a  critical,  self-centered  type;  or  in  non- 
suggestible  condition,  comfortable,  well,  secluded. 
Should  opposite  conditions  prevail,  an  audience  packed 
in  moving  picture  show,  a  throng  pushing  toward 
bank  door,  strikers  roused  over  the  death  of  a  fellow 
member  —  prestige  rises  in  power.  By  means  of  its 
contagion,  a  whirling  suction  is  developed,  able  to  strip 
the  most  rational  and  scatter  his  sane  thoughts  aloft 
in  the  winds. 

The  action,  moreover,  is  rapid.  It  takes  time  to  run 
over  arguments  one  by  one,  heaping  up  facts  and  weighty 
opinions  until  the  eye  of  reason  is  satisfied ;  but  this  is 
logic's  method.  Prestige  scorns  such  laborious  proce- 
dure. Skipping  nimbly  onward,  flashing  a  happy  phrase 
here,  a  mirage  there,  encouraging  and  exhorting  with 
deft  caress  and  glance,  she  has  drawn  men  into  a  far 
country  before  they  realize  what  it  is  all  about.  Con- 
verted quickly,  they  may  even  more  suddenly  return. 
The  slow  caravan  of  logic  possibly  has  not  yet  passed 
the  borders  of  the  home  land,  but  every  step  is  con- 
sidered, and  there  is  no  thought  of  going  back. 

The  respective  merits  and  shortcomings  of  logic  and 
prestige  have  now  been  considered  in  relation  to  subject, 
people,  and  action  desired.  What  of  their  use  in  partic- 
ular instances?  When  it  comes  to  practice,  the  old 
motto  is  here  emphatically  true.  In  union  there  is 
strength ;  consequently,  never  employ  either  unsupported 
by  the  other.    This  may  be  represented  by  a  diagram. 


290 


COMPETITORS 


a 

X                                                 e 

1 

Instinctive  and       ^""*'*^ 
Emotional  Reaatixjnff 

Reason  Reactions 

] 

b 

z                                                     d 

Let  xz  be  termed  the  motivating  line,  moving  freely 
to  the  right  or  left  with  y,  the  place  of  intersection, 
correspondingly  changing  its  location.  Let  xy  and 
yz  be  the  proportions  of  prestige  and  logic  respectively 
required  by  the  particular  situation.  Suppose  it  is  a 
corporation  director's  meeting  and  the  executive  is  pro- 
posing to  curtail  the  budget  —  he  slides  line  xyz  sharply 
toward  "  Logic "   (cd),  thereby  increasing  the  reason 


Fig.  5.  —  Prestige  versus  Logic. 

element  (xy)  at  the  expense  of  the  instinctive  and  emo- 
tional element  (yz).  He  becomes  argumentative.  Sup- 
pose it  is  the  huge  mass  meeting  just  before  the  polls 
open  on  the  morrow.  The  candidate  commences  with 
accurate  statements,  but,  warming  to  his  subject,  he 
implores  "  every  patriot  who  loves  his  home,  his  country, 
and  his  God,  to  perform  his  full  duty  to-morrow,  that  the 
glorious  heritage  of  our  fathers  be  forever  saved  from 
the  insidious  foes  of  evil  "  —  xyz  is  far  toward  ab. 
Every  situation,  indeed  every  separate  phase  of  the 
situation,  calls  for  readjustment  of  this  motivating  line. 
The  leader,  like  locomotive  engineer  at  throttle,  slides 
it  from  side  to  side  as  his  organization,  throbbing  with 
energy,  works  out  the  destiny  he  has  set  for  it. 

Thus  is  revealed  the  essential  oneness  of  the  entire 
process;  these  two  elements  are  not  antagonists  but 
supplements.    Prestige  gives  the  touch  of  persuasive- 


COMPLETE  MOTIVATION  291 

ness  which,  warming  the  mind  into  cordiality,  secures 
logic  a  hearing  ^ ;  it  adds  fervor  to  the  dry  appeal  of  rea- 
son and  gives  it  power.  Logic,  in  turn,  satisfies  the 
critical  faculties,  and  to  the  power  of  prestige  provides 
stability  of  action.  The  line  xyz^  in  reality,  is  not  single 
but  broken  at  y.  Simultaneously,  xy  may  advance 
toward  cd^  yz  toward  ah,  both  lengthening  and  waxing 
in  power  as  they  go.  The  instincts,  the  emotions, 
and  the  intellect  are  stirred,  and  that  simultaneously. 
Substituting  now  for  the  terms  "  prestige  "  and  "  logic  " 
the  complete  categories  personahty,  imitation,  sugges- 
tion, emulation,  art,  illusion,  discipline,  rewards,  idealism, 
and  instruction,  we  see  how  through  combination  of 
these  the  whole  mind  is  made  active,  and  in  the  group 
complete  motivation  is  secured.  This  represents  not 
merely  the  overthrow  of  competitors,  but  the  highest 
possible  triumph  of  the  executive.  Completely  moti- 
vated, with  interest  roused  and  opposition  allayed,  the 
members  of  his  organization  strive  as  super-men  to  do 
his  will. 

1  "It  is  an  old  and  true  maxim,"  said  President  Lincoln,  "that  a 
'drop  of  honey  catches  more  flies  than  a  gallon  of  gall.'  So  with  men. 
If  you  would  win  a  man  to  your  cause,  first  convince  him  that  you  are 
his  sincere  friend.  Therein  is  a  drop  of  honey  that  catches  his  heart, 
which,  say  what  he  will,  when  once  gained,  you  will  find  but  little  trouble 
in  convincing  his  judgment  of  the  justice  of  your  cause,  if  indeed  that 
cause  reaUy  be  a  just  one.  On  the  contrary,  assume  to  dictate  to  his 
judgment,  or  to  command  his  action,  or  to  mark  him  as  one  to  be  shunned 
and  despised,  and  he  will  retreat  within  himself,  close  all  the  avenues  to 
his  head  and  his  heart;  and  though  your  cause  be  naked  truth  itself, 
and  though  you  throw  it  with  more  than  Herculean  force  and  precision, 
you  will  be  no  more  able  to  pierce  him  than  to  penetrate  the  hard  skull 
of  a  tortoise  with  a  rye  straw."  Scott,  Influencing  Men  in  Business^ 
153-154. 


292  COMPETITORS 


EXERCISES 

1.  Do  men  more  often  base  their  decisions  upon  evidence  or 
seek  evidence  to  justify  their  decisions? 

2.  Show  how  the  contest  of  prestige  versus  prestige  tends  to 
degenerate,  while  that  of  logic  versus  logic  tends  to  rise. 

3.  Should  a  coffee  merchant  oppose  other  brands  of  coffee  or 
other  drinks,  as  tea  or  cocoa? 

4.  Do  churches  suffer  more  from  the  competition  of  other 
churches  or  from  non-church  influences? 

5.  Under  the  present  organized  competition  is  the  labor 
problem  more  or  less  serious  than  heretofore? 

6.  Why  do  tottering  empires  often  resort  to  foreign  wars? 
When  a  centralized  monarchy  wars  a  democracy,  what  differences 
in  policy  pursued  by  the  respective  leaders? 

READINGS 

Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  Ch.  V. 

Ross,  Social  Psychology,  Chs.  XVIII,  XXII,  or  Bryce,  The  Ameri- 
can Commonwealth,  II,  Part  IV. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
The  Executive's  Adaptability 

"Licinius,  trust  a  seaman's  lore, 
Steer  not  too  boldly  to  the  deep, 
Nor,  fearing  storms,  by  treacherous  shore 
Too  closely  creep."  —  Horace. 

Competition  provides  scope  for  the  powers  of  the 
strong  man.  It  puts  a  premium  upon  mass  action,  the 
single  wage  earner  or  tradesman  or  manufacturer  in  the 
strife  for  existence  or  for  prosperity  being  hard  pressed 
by  organized  labor  or  chain  store  or  trust.  Moreover, 
as  management  increases  in  efficiency,  the  smaller  or- 
ganization is  routed  by  its  larger  opponent.  But  every 
organization  calls  for  an  executive,  and  the  larger  and 
more  complex  the  organization,  the  keener  its  opponents, 
the  more  necessary  he  is. 

The  claim  is  often  advanced  that  numbers  of  men 
without  authoritative  direction  can  work  together  for 
their  mutual  interests.  As  set  forth  in  theory  it  is  plaus- 
ible enough,  and  not  a  few  adherents  have  been  won  to 
it.  The  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World,  the  coopera- 
tive societies,  the  anarchists,  the  advocates  of  the  ini- 
tiative, the  referendum  and  the  recall,  even  claim  to 
have  proved  the  theory  in  practice,  with  citation  of  cases 
as  evidence. 

Observation  of  these  cases  seems  to  indicate  quite  a 
different  result.  The  syndicalists,  in  trying  to  establish 
a  thoroughgoing  industrial  democracy,  have  themselves 
developed  a  hierarchy  with  powers  quite  more  absolute 

293 


294  EXECUTIVE'S  ADAPTABILITY 

than  what  they  set  out  to  overthrow.  The  cooperative 
societies,  in  this  country  at  least,  have  a  history  filled 
with  accounts  of  internal  dissension  and  wasteful  methods, 
those  enterprises  of  less  disappointing  careers  usually 
being  ruled  by  some  member  energetic  and  ambitious 
enough  to  enforce  his  will  over  the  incompetents.  The 
advocates  of  the  initiative,  the  referendum,  and  the 
recall  have  all  the  best  of  it  in  argument ;  but  their  en- 
thusiasm has  one  effective  damper,  the  lethargy  of  the 
average  citizen.  He  goes  not  to  the  polls,  much  to  the 
chagrin  of  reformers  who  witness  the  machinery  of  pure 
democracy  desecrated  by  machine  men  of  the  old  school. 
And  as  for  the  socialists  and  the  anarchists,  under  the 
guise  of  a  new  nomenclature  their  theories  practically 
reinstate  the  present  forms  of  authority,  and  in  so  far 
as  they  have  abandoned  purely  theoretical  attitudes  for 
active  propaganda,  the  same  aristocratic  tendencies 
appear  among  them,  the  destruction  of  which  in  others 
constituted  their  sole  purpose  as  reformers.  So  long, 
in  fact,  as  men  work  together  in  organizations,  central- 
izing tendencies  will  prevail  and  the  strong  man  will 
find  there  is  need  for  him. 

But  though  this  be  true,  does  it  mean  his  dominance 
is  without  limit?  An  all-prevailing  principle  of  nature 
is  adaptation,  and  it  begins  with  the  lowest  forms  of 
animal  Hfe.  The  dull-hued  grasshopper  escapes  de- 
struction through  lack  of  contrast  to  his  surroundings, 
the  tiger  by  tawny  stripes  increases  his  chances  for  prey, 
the  East  Indian  butterfly  maintains  its  numbers  by  a 
wonderfully  exact  resemblance  to  a  dead  leaf.  Adapta- 
tion, to  these  creatures,  is  on  the  basis  of  survival ;  failure 
means  extinction.  Were  the  executive  submitted  to 
definite  tests,  should  he  not  also  reveal  adaptability  ? 

He  is  being  submitted  to  such  tests  daily,  and  he  does 
reveal  adaptability.    He  is  obliged  to.    Beneath  the 


PRESSURE  UPON  EXECUTIVES  295 

stockholders  as  owners  and  above  the  subordinates  as 
operators  lies  the  executive's  task,  himself,  as  scores 
have  felt  it,  ground  between  two  millstones.  He  is 
the  go-between,  the  unifier,  the  harmonizer,  in  short, 
the  executive.  The  city  school  superintendent,  pressed 
hard  by  board  of  education,  teachers'  committees, 
educational  reformers,  parents'  desires  and  pupils' 
claims,  longs  for  the  freedom  he  vainly  supposes  the 
merchant  to  enjoy.  The  merchant,  however,  besought 
by  travelers  for  orders,  employees  for  better  wages  and 
working  conditions,  by  tithe  gatherers  for  donations, 
and  by  the  pubUc  for  higher  grade  merchandising,  is 
scarce  an  object  of  envy  for  him  who  would  do  as  he 
pleases.  Nor  is  any  executive.  He  must  meet  the 
conflicting  forces  which  fall  upon  him,  distribute  and 
direct  them,  urge  them  toward  the  composite  goal, 
himself  attacking  and  retreating,  resolute  and  pUant, 
stern  or  mild  as  will  best  attain  the  results  without 
which  one  never  quaUfies  as  executive. 

This  demand  for  adaptabiUty,  happily,  is  something 
which  the  executive  may  with  persistence  prepare  to 
meet.  Surplus,  either  physical,  mental,  or  material,  is 
a  prime  requisite.  It  is  the  cushion  which  dissipated 
the  jar.i     Since  the  first  duty  of  any  organism,  it  may 

^  *  There  are  numberless  methods  by  which  this  cushion  is  kept  con- 
ditioned. Under  strains  which  crush  the  ordinary  man,  Alexander  on  the 
march  diverted  himself  with  fox  hunting  or  fowling,  or,  with  the  hosts 
of  Persia  before  him  and  Arbela  an  event  of  the  morrow,  "sleeps  more 
soundly  than  was  his  wont";  the  Iron  Chancellor  discussed  the  "most 
serious  subjects  with  a  genial  and  careless  bonhommie" ;  the  Lord  Protec- 
tor of  England  could  lay  aside  "his  serious  and  great  business"  and  rival 
his  secretaries  in  making  verse ;  the  Conqueror  of  Mexico  enjoyed  a  game 
of  chance,  jesting  and  laughing  over  his  gains  and  losses ;  the  Founder 
of  the  Dutch  Republic,  far  from  the  brooding  figure  implied  by  the  term 
'Silent,'  was  a  genial  companion,  at  times  making  merry  with  beer,  wine, 
and  noisy  poetry;  the  Prophet  of  Allah  joined  in  childish  games  with 
his  nephews,  a  leader,  one  of  the  followers  declared,  who  was  almost 
always  smiling. 


296  EXECUTIVE'S   ADAPTABILITY 

be  said,  is  to  maintain  its  life,  should  this  surplus  near 
depletion  it  ceases  to  part  with  the  energy  required  for 
adjustments.  Under  pain  of  being  robbed,  the  man  of 
limited  nerve  capital,  yet  anxious  to  accomplish  some 
great  purpose,  is  forced  to  remain  soUtary.  Herbert 
Spencer,  marvelous  example  of  a  man  for  years  never 
far  removed  from  mental  collapse,  who  yet  completed  a 
monumental  work,  greatly  restricted  his  personal  in- 
tercourse with  guests,  and  especially  shrank  from  argu- 
ment. "His  common  practice,"  writes  Sir  Francis 
Galton,  "when  pressed  in  a  difficult  position  was  to 
finger  his  purse  and  saying,  'I  must  not  talk  any  more,' 
to  abruptly  leave  the  conversation  unfinished."  ^  It 
is  also  related  of  Darwin  that  when  the  guests  who  had 
called  to  discuss  evolutionary  theories  engaged  him  in 
particularly  animated  conversation,  he  was  unable  to 
sleep  that  night.  He  lived  in  semi-seclusion  at  Downs, 
much  more  happy  there,  no  doubt,  than  was  Spencer 
in  London,  who,  unable  to  adapt  himself  readily  to  other 
people's  ways,  fidgety  and  irritable  when  anybody  or 
anything  did  not  meet  his  own  very  decided  views, 
moved  from  boarding  house  to  boarding  house.  They 
were  eminent  intellectual  leaders,  yet  neither  of  them,  it 
is  safe  to  say,  could  have  superintended  a  factory  suc- 
cessfully nor  withstood  the  trials  of  a  gubernatorial 
campaign. 

The  surplus  energy  t5^e  need  not  thus  shield  itself, 
but  presses  forward,  and  in  so  doing  perfects  its  adjust- 
ments. For  the  life  processes  issue  in  a  great  twofold 
adaptation,  expansions  and  contractions,  the  former 
representing  waxing,  the  latter  waning,  vitality  —  with 
all  special  adaptations  secured  during  the  expansive 
movements.^    The  outflowing  life,  the  excess  vitality 

*  Duncan,  Herbert  Spencer,  501. 
'  Baldwin,  Mental  Development,  249. 


EXPERIENCE  297 

which  brings  one  into  many  experiences,  provides  the 
raw  material  from  which  adaptability  is  woven,  and 
thus,  though  the  surplus  be  in  body,  mind,  or  goods, 
unto  him  that  hath  it  shall  be  given.^ 

To  this  surplus  one  may  add  experience.  From  his 
earliest  youth  equally  at  home  in  the  Tuileries  or 
the  Louvre,  among  the  motley  crowd  of  Italian  adven- 
turers, intriguing  priests,  dissolute  gallants,  ambitious 
nobles,  and  unscrupulous  statesmen,  or  again  in  the 
retired  strongholds  of  Protestantism,  in  the  cottages  of 
the  peasantry  or  in  the  camps  of  the  Huguenot  veterans, 
Henry  of  Navarre  developed  that  versatiHty  which 
united  France  and  won  him  a  crown.  Napoleon,  when 
yet  a  sublieutenant  of  artillery,  poring  over  military  and 
political|treatises,2  Cortes  planning  a  conquest  while  his 
followers  wrangled  over  spoils  or  indulged  in  desultory 
trading  with  the  natives.  Nelson  placing  on  paper  before 
he  sailed  the  maneuvers  which  subsequently  crushed 
the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  at  Trafalgar, 
similarly  represent  adaptability  in  process.     The  sub- 

1  Napoleon  illustrates  how  these  elements  are  intertwined.  At  the 
military  school  of  Brienne,  an  uncouth  Corsican  with  scarcely  a  livre 
he  could  call  his  own,  he  was  the  butt  of  the  school  jokes  and  tricks. 
As  the  financial  dictator  of  Europe  he  was  surrounded  with  throngs  of 
admirers.  Both  physique  and  temperament  shared  in  the  transforma- 
tion. "  He  was  thin,  and  of  delicate  aspect,  in  youth ;  his  frame  and  his 
features  seemed  to  expand  with  his  fortunes,  and  he  became  heavy 
and  obese  as  age  advanced.  Napoleon  was  taciturn  and  morose  in 
youth ;  under  the  influence  of  ever  favoring  fortune  this  reticence  and 
austerity  vanished.  His  tastes  and  sympathies  seemed  to  expand,  and 
Napoleon  became  joyous,  talkative,  fond  of  companionship,  brilliant  in 
social  intercourse."     Morris,^ Napoleon,  404,  418,  slightly  adapted. 

2  "His  intellect  was  not  confined  by  the  narrow  bounds  of  professional 
duties;  he  studied  military  history  with  intense  earnestness;  became 
one  of  the  most  learned  of  soldiers;  and  especially  pored  for  laborious 
hours  over  military  maps  and  plans  of  fortresses.  .  .  .  Nor  were  these 
the  limits  of  that  eager  industry;  he  devoured  treatises  on  law,  phi- 
losophy, theology,  and  the  art  of  government.  Innumerable  extracts 
and  notes  from  his  pen  on  these  subjects  remain  unpublished."  Morris 
Napoleon,  7. 


298  EXECUTIVE'S  ADAPTABILITY 

conscious,  long  saturated  by  the  particular  materials, 
develops  deftness  in  dealing  with  them.  The  amateur 
becomes  expert. 

This  process  of  experience  getting  as  an  aid  to  adapt- 
ability might  well  continue  without  check  were  it  not 
for  this  Umiting  factor  —  old-f ogyism.  The  child's  mind 
is  a  bundle  of  tendencies  ready  to  be  shaped;  the 
youth's  mind  is  less  plastic ;  the  mature  mind  indicates 
increasing  rigidity ;  and  the  rule  in  later  life  —  to  which 
there  are  indeed  brilliant  exceptions  —  is  that  conclu- 
sions once  reached  tend  to  remain  undisturbed.  Old- 
f ogyism  tends  to  encase  us  as  the  years  pass. 

The  danger  need  not  be  serious  should  one's  occupation 
permit  conservatism.  The  bishops,  in  our  questionnaire 
returns,  average  60.6  years  in  age,  the  chief  justices  of 
the  state  supreme  courts  61.7,  some  eight  or  nine  years 
older  than  the  general  average  and  surpassing  the  re- 
formers by  thirteen  years.^  But  the  average  executive, 
the  man  who  commands  the  top-notcher  sales  force  which 
invades  every  hamlet  or  whose  orders  quicken  the  pace 
of  iron  workers,  trainmen  or  voters  —  he  must  not 
be  very  young  nor  yet  very  old.  The  executive,  we 
may  conclude,  by  the  very  nature  of  his  work  is  an 
adjuster,  and  he  must  possess  adaptability. 

Here  then  is  the  Scylla  and  Charybdis  into  which  leader 

*  The  Congressional  Directories  on  being  tabulated  show  little  varia- 
tion in  the  House  during  the  52d,  S4th,  S7th,  sgth,  60th,  and  62d  Con- 
gresses. In  the  62d  Congress,  the  Democratic  Representatives  averaged 
47.9,  the  Republican  51.7,  an  average  of  49.4  for  both;  Democratic 
Senators  55.2,  Republican  58.4,  57  for  both;  a  total  for  all  legislators  of 
51  years.  The  reversal  of  191 2  is  thus  commented  upon  by  Public  Opin- 
ion :  "  It  is  to  a  peculiar  degree  a  Congress  of  new  men.  The  old  political 
war-horses  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence,  and  those  that  are  left  are 
shorn  in  large  part  of  their  leadership.  'There  is,'  says  a  Washington 
correspondent  in  speaking  of  the  Senate,  *  something  almost  tragic  about 
the  vanishing  of  the  "elder  statesmen"  from  both  parties;  and  in  the 
House  there  has  been  a  veritable  sweep  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals  so  far 
as  the  old  order  of  things  is  concerned.' "    April,  1913,  265. 


BALANCE  299 

after  leader  plunges  to  his  destruction.  Henry  Clay's 
perorations  so  outdistanced  safer  judgment  that  bitter 
altercations  often  would  follow,  especially  undesirable  in 
the  case  of  a  candidate  for  the  presidency.  John 
Randolph's  system  of  terrorism,  effective  in  the  politics 
of  Charlotte,  in  Washington  reacted  upon  him  so  vio- 
lently that  he  was  driven  from  public  Hfe.  Sam  Houston, 
rivaling  a  circus  in  ability  to  attract  Texans,  gained  no 
foothold  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  with  his  frontier  eloquence. 
General  Grant,  carrying  his  military  habits  into  the 
White  House,  precipitated  one  petty  squabble  after 
another,  warped  by  his  previous  experience  and  out  of 
touch,  just  as  Clive  was  because  of  India,  and  the  old 
Roman  governors,  through  conducting  in  the  provinces 
a  legalized,  military  tyranny,  with  difficulty  found  their 
way  back  to  the  common  civic  level.  It  has  become  a 
proverb  that  uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown, 
quite  as  applicable  to  obstinate  general  manager  as  to 
self-styled  imperial  demigods. 

The  centralizing  tendencies  pointed  out  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter  do  provide  niches  of  power  for  the 
strong  man ;  they  do  not,  however,  as  those  of  aristo- 
cratic yearnings  would  have  us  believe,  condemn  the 
common  man  in  store  or  factory  or  state  to  the  perpetual 
rule  of  oligarchs.  The  executive  as  he  forges  ahead  is 
made  to  realize  in  no  uncertain  way  that  the  age-old 
evolution  of  democracy  has  now  reached  the  point  where 
the  checks  upon  a  superior's  power  are  tolerably  effec- 
tive. As  he  motivates  his  men,  the  executive  must  hold 
their  interest  lest  costly  opposition  be  aroused  or  they 
themselves  be  lost  to  a  competitor  who  offers  them  more 
for  the  same  effort.  The  result  is  no  autocrat,  but  a 
selected  man,  one  who  in  his  particular  situation  fits. 

The  truly  great  leader,  in  consequence,  represents 
variation,  for  variation  alone  removes  him  from  the 


300  EXECUTIVE'S  ADAPTABILITY 

mediocre ;  he  backs  this  up  with  strength  and  resolution, 
since,  without  these,  thought  products  never  burst  into 
reality  but  remain  forever  fanciful ;  but  he  has  control 
as  well.  He  stands  aloof  from  idle  theorizing,  passing 
under  ruthless  scrutiny  all  available  ideas  until  the 
most  workable  only  is  sorted  out.  This  he  seeks  to 
realize.  Ever  discriminating  between  possible  and  im- 
possible, wielding  power  but  seized  with  no  giddiness  of 
the  tyrant,  recognizing  even  when  on  the  pinnacle  of 
success  its  limits,  he  possesses  effectiveness.  In  his 
character,  therefore,  strength  is  so  combined  with 
moderation,  variation  with  adaptation,  that  balance  is 
secured.^ 

EXERCISES 

1.  Justify  the  saying  "young  men  for  action,  old  men  for 
advice." 

2.  Compare  the  span  of  effectiveness  in  jurists,  major  league 
ball  players,  and  accountants. 

3.  By  what  means  may  one  postpone  the  cramp  of  age  (old- 
fogyism)  ?     Give  instances. 

4.  Show  that  the  form  in  which  Christ's  message  was  presented 
is  one  source  of  its  vitaUty. 

5.  Outline  a  plan  by  which  adaptability  may  be  developed. 


READINGS 

James,  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology,  199  —  228. 
Jordan  and  Kellog,  Animal  Life,  Ch,  VIII. 

*  Well  has  Mommsen  analyzed  the  true  greatness  of  Caesar:  "In  his 
character  as  a  man  as  well  as  in  his  place  in  history,  Caesar  occupies  a 
position  where  the  great  contrasts  of  existence  meet  and  balance  each 
other.  Of  the  mightiest  creative  power  and  yet  at  the  same  time  of 
the  most  penetrating  judgment ;  no  longer  a  youth  and  not  yet  an  old 
man ;  of  the  highest  energy  of  will  and  the  highest  capacity  of  execution ; 
filled  with  republican  ideals  and  at  the  same  time  bom  to  be  a  king;  a 
Roman  in  the  deepest  essence  of  his  nature,  and  yet  called  to  reconcile 
and  combine  in  himself  as  well  as  in  the  outer  world  the  Roman  and  the 
Hellenic  types  of  culture  —  Caesar  was  the  entire  and  perfect  man." 
History  of  Rome,  IV,  545-546. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
The  Final  Process:  Assimilation 

"It  is  pleasant  to  see  before  others  what  is  coming,  but  it  is 
hard  to  wait  until  enough  of  the  others  see  it  to  make  the  coming 
possible."  — Henry  D.  Lloyd. 

"It  may  be  true  that  he  travels  farthest  who  travels  alone; 
but  the  goal  thus  reached  is  not  worth  reaching." 

—  Theodore  Roosevelt. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  final  chapter  the  connection 
existing  between  the  three  different  phases  of  our  in- 
vestigation perhaps  deserves  restatement.  In  Part  I  was 
emphasized  individuaHty,  the  divergence  of  the  execu- 
tive from  the  average,  the  man  himself  being  termed  a 
variate  and  his  ideas  variations.  In  Part  II  were  consid- 
ered the  various  methods  through  which  the  executive 
motivates  his  organization  to  the  end  that  these  varia- 
tions of  his  be  realized  in  practice.  In  Part  III  has  been 
discussed  so  far  the  reaction  which  his  organization 
makes  to  the  executive's  purposes  and  methods,  the 
net  result  of  which  is  that  the  variations  undergo  selec- 
tion within  the  group  and  the  leader  himself  is  made 
adaptable.  We  now  come  to  the  final  process  in  which 
these  variations  —  forced  home  by  the  various  methods 
of  motivation,  that  is,  by  personality,  imitation,  sugges- 
tion, emulation,  art,  illusion,  discipline,  rewards,  ideal- 
ism, and  instruction ;    selected  and  limited  by  apathy, 

301 


302      THE  FINAL  PROCESS:    ASSIMILATION 

opposition,  and  competition  —  become  incorporated  into 
the  organization,  living  tissue  henceforth. 

This  process  may  be  termed  assimilation.^  Its  im- 
portance is  usually  overlooked,  men  being  more  taken 
by  the  energetic  and  apparently  effective  action  of  the 
individual  as  compared  with  the  slow,  lumbering  gait 
at  which  whole  groups  move.  Nevertheless,  ideas 
unassimilated  remain  forever  adventitious,  a  lesson 
which  despots,  impatient  reformers,  and  efficiency  experts 
learn  only  haltingly.  Once  assimilated,  however,  the 
executive's  task  is  completed. 

The  preceding  fifteen  chapters  have  considered  in 
detail  the  methods  by  which  the  executive  motivates 
men  to  carry  out  his  ideas  and  the  means  by  which  such 
ideas  are  made  easy  to  assimilate,  and  we  may  now 
draw  from  them  certain  more  general  principles : 

(i)  The  more  numerous  the  points  of  contact ,  the 
more  rapid  the  assimilation.  —  A  judicious  selection 
of  men  increases  the  points  of  contact.  With  the 
proper  subordinates  drawn  to  his  standards,  a  Garibaldi, 
a  McCormick,  a  Napoleon,  a  Carnegie  sees  his  ideas, 
readily  externalized.  But  what  sales  manager  could 
develop  points  of  contact  with  tramps  for  sales  force? 
Could  Grant  have  succeeded  with  Coxey's  army  or  James 
J.  Hill  with  Marshall  Field's  employees  ?  None  of  them 
would  attempt  it.  The  organizer,  therefore,  courts  suc- 
cess in  advance ;  he  builds  his  machine  of  parts  which 
will  enter  into  the  required  closeness  of  contact. 

Choosing  from  among  the  various  methods  of  moti- 
vation those  best  adapted  to  the  particular  situation 
also  increases  the  number  of  contact  points.  The  vis- 
ionary statesman  appeals  to  idealism,  the  contractor  to 

*See  Simonds,  "Social  Assimilation,"  Am.  Jour.  Soc,  VI,  790-822; 
VII,  53-79,  234-248,  386-404,  539-556;  especially  the  "laws  of  assimi- 
lation," VI,  807. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  303 

rewards;  and  each  may  be  equally  successful,  but  not 
vice  versa.  The  skillful  combination  of  methods  is  even 
more  important.  Suppose  that  in  a  certain  situation 
nothing  incongruous  results  from  a  combination  of  per- 
sonality, imitation,  rewards,  idealism,  and  instruction; 
the  effect  could  scarcely  fail  to  be  mastering.  It  is  such 
combined  appeals  —  and  everywhere  they  are  far  more 
readily  secured  than  single  appeals  —  that  fully  motivate. 
Industrial  managers  are  broadening  the  old  basis  of 
rewards  and  discipline  until,  having  added  emulation, 
idealism,  instruction,  often  others,  they  possess  a  safe 
foundation  for  man  management.  Politicians,  to  take 
their  chief  as  an  illustration,  combine  strength  of  per- 
sonality, deftness  of  suggestion,  emulation,  discipline, 
rewards,  a  naive  inscrutability,  and  the  loftiest  appeal 
to  idealism. 

In  reality,  however,  it  is  interest  which  furnishes  the 
greatest  number  of  contact  points.  The  lively,  image- 
provoking  idea  cannot  remain  an  alien.  It  penetrates 
and  abides.  Congenial  to  the  mind,  developing  within 
consciousness  in  a  cumulative  way,  it  evokes  the  glow 
which  makes  the  welding  easy.  The  orator,  commencing 
somewhat  as  an  alien  but  establishing  before  long  a 
bond  of  common  relation  between  himself  and  audience, 
impels  his  hearers  in  the  end  to  accept  ideas  which, 
advanced  at  first,  would  have  been  repudiated.  The 
politician,  "  keeping  his  ear  to  the  ground,"  reading 
shrewdly  the  popular  mind,  develops  such  numerous 
contact  points  that  he  often  knows  his  constituents' 
desires  better  than  they  themselves  do.  This  ability 
at  its  maximiun  makes  a  leader  the  mouthpiece,  pos- 
sibly, of  his  age.  He  utters  best  that  which  all  would 
have  said.  In  the  young  Louis  XIV  the  French  nation 
saw  an  epitome  of  itself;  in  John  Knox  the  heart  and 
mind  of  the  nation  was  revealed  to  itself  in  a  measure 


304      THE   FINAL   PROCESS:    ASSIMILATION 

beyond  any  other  of  his  countrymen ;  their  day  and 
generation  was  uttered  through  Lincoln  and  Washing- 
ton, Cromwell  and  Bismarck,  Napoleon  and  Caesar. 
These  men  all  illustrated  by  practice  that  being  in  touch 
is  a  rule  of  effectiveness. 

(2).  The  less  the  opposition,  the  quicker  [the  assimi- 
lation. —  Less  opposition  is  aroused  if  the  leader  varies 
in  one  direction  only,  while  conforming  in  general. 
Hamilton  met  Burr  in  duel  because,  he  said,  "  the  ability 
to  be  in  future  useful  probably  is  inseparable  from  a  con- 
formity with  public  prejudice  in  this  particular."  The 
municipal  "  boss,"  that  horror  to  decent  citizens,  is  cor- 
rupt, it  is  true ;  yet  in  most  respects  he  represents  that  for 
which  his  own  constituents  secretly  long.  A  certain  popu- 
lar prime  minister  in  Spain  never  missed  mass,  but  he  emp- 
tied more  monasteries  than  any  other  premier  Alfonso  has 
had  since  he  began  to  reign.  Any  executive  easily  discov- 
ers enough  minor  points  obnoxious  to  his  organization  to 
jeopardize  the  entire  forward  movement,  if  he  but  insist 
upon  them.  It  is  well  to  be  diverted  by  no  non-essen- 
tial, but,  tolerant  and  conforming  in  general,  press  for 
one's  main  objective. 

Minimizing  the  degree  of  difference  is  another  method 
through  which  less  opposition  is  aroused.  When  his 
organization  is  custom  bound,  the  executive  decks  his 
variations  in  ancient  garb.^    The  energetic   mayors  of 

1 "  Sir  Henry  Maine  tells  a  delightful  story  of  an  Indian  village  which 
had  had  a  water  supply  provided  for  it  by  a  paternal  British  Govern- 
ment. The  villagers  were  notified,  as  a  matter  of  course,  of  the  official 
regulations  laid  down  for  the  proper  use  of  the  water.  An  East  End 
district  of  London  would  be  only  too  glad  to  get  a  good  water  supply 
on  such  terms.  But  to  the  patriarchal  society  of  India  the  notion  that 
customs  could  be  manufactured  by  an  official  pen  was  simply  incredible, 
and  it  was  not  until  a  wise  official  induced  the  village  elders  (by  what 
means  is  not  stated)  to  persuade  the  rank  and  file  that  the  rules  in  ques- 
tion were  really  of  immemorial  antiquity,  though  their  existence  had 
only  just  been  discovered,  that  the  difficulty  was  solved."  Jenks, 
History  0/  Politics  j  71. 


EMPHASIZING  ESSENTIALS  305 

the  palace,  though  dispossessing  the  Merwings  of  all 
power,  nevertheless  permitted  the  king  to  retain  his 
royal  title,  long  hair,  and  hanging  beard.  "  Seated  in 
a  chair  of  state,"  says  the  old  chronicler  Eginhard,  "  he 
used  to  display  an  appearance  of  power  by  receiving 
foreign  ambassadors  on  their  arrival,  and  by  giving  them 
on  their  departure,  as  if  on  his  own  authority,  those 
answers  he  had  been  taught  or  commanded  to  give." 

Similarly  the  barbarian  conquerors,  leaders  like 
Clovis,  Theodoric,  Alaric,  and  Egbert,  appropriated  the 
character  and  attributes  of  the  tribal  chief  they  dis- 
possessed. The  pedigrees  of  these  chiefs  generally  led 
up  to  some  mythical  hero,  long  reverenced  by  the  tribes- 
men as  the  ancestor  of  them  all ;  and  the  wily  usurpers, 
through  a  series  of  fictions  to  be  accepted  only  in  a  sim- 
ple age,  persuaded  their  subjects  that  they  really  were 
members  of  these  ancient  famiHes.^  It  is  an  old  illu- 
sion, still  in  use.  The  politician  cites  to  his  hearers 
Aristotle's  Politics  and  glibly  quotes  a  line  from  Cicero, 
the  anti-saloon  agitator  and  the  tax  reformer  draw 
deadly  parallels  between  ourselves  and  the  Fall  of 
Rome,  the  general  manager  assures  the  suspicious  work- 
men that  he  is  merely  extending  and  not  introducing  a 
new  wage  plan,  the  lawyer  and  the  jurist  juggle  prece- 
dents until  we  marvel  at  the  hybrid  births  of  constitu- 
tion or  code,  the  prophet  in  the  pulpit  buries  his  new- 
hatched  projects  deep  under  Holy  Writ.  Clad  in  such 
sober  garb,  the  newcomer  apparently  is  of  the  old  and 
as  such  less  disturbs  the  grooves  of  habit. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  novelty  is  ascendant,  the 
leaders  furbish  up  their  faded  notions  that  these  may 
impress  as  new.  Captains  of  industry  deck  out  in  splen- 
did terminology  the  old  truth  that  the  laborer  is  worthy 
of  his  hire.  Reformers  eagerly  seek  converts  to  doctrines 
1  Jenks,  op.  cit.,  85. 


3o6      THE  FINAL   PROCESS:    ASSIMILATION 

tested  out  centuries  since  and  relegated  to  the  social 
museums.  The  politician  heralds  as  a  discovery  the 
class  struggle,  himself  perhaps  not  yet  having  heard  of 
Cleisthenes  or  the  Gracchi.  A  difficult  task  it  is  to  turn 
humanity's  interest  toward  a  long  since  explored  and 
cobwebbed  cavern;  yet  some  have  attained  a  bit  of 
prestige  and  a  following,  too,  by  brushing  aside  these 
cobwebs  and  shouting,  "  El  Dorado  !  " 

Should  opposition  be  aroused,  assimilation  is  much 
hindered,  since  nothing  makes  one  cKng  more  tena- 
ciously to  his  opinions  than  having  fought  for  them. 
The  best  policy  in  general  seems  to  allow  it  vent.  It  is 
the  mind  surcharged  that  is  dangerous.  One  executive 
arranges  a  special  meeting  at  which  irate  stockholders 
are  free  to  heckle  him,  another  gives  cordial  considera- 
tion to  every  complaint,  another  meets  each  grievance 
with  "  Sit  down.  Let's  talk  things  over."  Still  another 
—  this  a  premier  —  invites  the  republican  agitators  to 
dine  at  the  royal  palace  that  he  and  the  king  may  debate 
with  them  as  they  all  break  bread  together. 

Such  a  plan  does  more  than  relieve  unsafe  pressure; 
it  promotes  mutual  toleration.  To  such  an  extent  has 
this  toleration  grown  among  civilized  men  that  we  may 
well  be  amazed  to  note  how  many  the  differences  yet 
how  few  the  violent  clashes  of  opinions.  Why  have  we 
gotten  past  the  age  when  across  each  difference  falls  the 
shadow  of  a  club?  Discussion,  endless  talk  wisely 
directed,  is  responsible  for  this  progressive  change.  It 
has  hindered  precipitate  action,  that  old  failing  of  the 
race  and  by  elevating  the  thinker  over  club  wielder 
or  fulminator,  has  put  a  premium  upon  intelUgence.^ 
The  roots  of  opposition  thereupon  are  laid  bare,  and  in 
the  glare  of  reason  is  the  remedy  applied.  Not  every 
leader  nor   every   cause,   however,   can  undergo   such 

*  Tarde,  Social  Laws,  130-132 ;  Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  Ch.  V. 


MEETING  COMPLAINTS  307 

searching  dissection,  and  live.  To  all  such  —  and  they 
are  many  —  were  it  better  to  endure  those  ills  of  oppo- 
sition they  have  than  fly  to  others  they  know  not  of. 

(3)  The  slighter  the  variation  the  quicker  its  assimi- 
lation. The  practical  man  hesitates  to  commit  himself 
to  detailed  and  far-reaching  plans,  into  which  are  liable 
to  enter  factors  now  unsuspected  and  over  which  he 
can  exercise  no  control.  To  him  the  views  of  Field 
Marshal  von  Moltke  are  much  more  sound :  "  It  is  a 
delusion  to  believe  that  a  plan  of  war  may  be  laid  for  a 
prolonged  period  and  carried  out  at  every  point.  The 
first  collision  with  the  enemy  changes  the  situation 
entirely  according  to  the  result.  Some  things  decided 
upon  will  be  impracticable;  others  which  originally 
seemed  impossible  become  feasible."  This  view  pushed 
farther  gives  us  the  opportunist,  fashioning  his  creeds 
as  the  times  demand. 

Some  men  do  prefer  to  work  at  close  range  to  their 
task,  ideahsts  perhaps  but  always  practical  and  never 
far  removed  from  their  followers.  To  the  unscalable 
summit  Roosevelt  never  points ;  nor  does  Carnegie  nor 
Wanamaker  nor,  in  fact,  most  of  the  executives  now  on 
the  broad  plains  of  reality  guiding  hmnanity  from  day 
to  day.  The  man  whose  efforts  are  considered  success- 
ful only  as  they  meet  the  test  of  his  firm's  balance  sheet 
cannot  direct  men  in  terms  of  a  thousand  years;  such 
generalizations  and  prophecies  he  may  not  venture  upon 
save  at  club  or  banquet. 

Such  nearness  to  their  work  some  men  assume  by 
consistently  minimizing  their  variations.  The  English 
labor  leaders  as  they  sit  on  the  benches  in  parHament 
wear  the  same  workingmen's  caps  as  their  comrades  do 
in  the  shops.  Jefferson,  condemning  the  formaUties 
and  elegance  of  Washington  and  Adams,  expressed  an 
indifference   to   dress   and    the   conventional   rules   of 


3o8      THE   FINAL   PROCESS:    ASSIMILATION 

society;  and  although  his  equipage  as  president  was 
similar  to  that  used  by  the  nobility  in  Paris  or  London 
and  his  inauguration  attended  with  as  much  pomp  and 
ceremony  as  the  physical  conditions  would  permit,  widely 
circulated  the  pleasant  fiction  that  he  rode  unattended 
and  hitched  his  horse  to  a  post  1  Jackson  would  have 
the  plain  people  feel  he  was  ever  on  their  level  —  even 
in  manners ;  in  reality,  his  courtly  bearing  won  all  the 
ladies,  Mrs.  Webster,  according  to  her  husband,  being 
for  him  decidedly.  Rudeness  with  him  was  deliberate 
and  convenient. 

Whatever  the  means  they  see  fit  to  employ,  all  men 
such  as  these  maintain  close  relations  with  their  respec- 
tive groups ;  in  so  doing  they  represent  a  more  imme- 
diate effectiveness. 

Others  vary  so  widely  that  clear  appraisal  is  not  at 
once  possible ;  while  some  shout  "  genius,"  others  shout 
"  fool."  To  the  future  alone  is  left  the  final  verdict. 
Meanwhile,  not  overlooking  the  thousands  rightly  termed 
cranks  and  thereupon  suppressed,  for  lack  of  discern- 
ment precious  gifts  in  human  form  daily  are  crushed  out, 
and  what  might  have  been  never  is ;  others,  —  as  was 
said  of  Charles  Fox,  possibly  could  have  been  said  of 
William  Jennings  Bryan,  —  though  less  rudely  treated, 
preach  to  the  deaf  ears  of  one  generation  great  principles 
which  become  accepted  truisms  in  the  next.  A  Darwin, 
a  Luther,  a  Jesus  scatters  the  seed  of  a  thousand  years 
upon  what  is  then  sterile  ground.  It  is  not  given  such 
men  to  witness  the  harvest. 

Bound  up  within  the  width  of  variation  which  he 
espouses  is  the  leader's  choice  between  the  immediate 
and  the  remote,  opportunism  and  reformation,  fellow- 
ship and  distinction.  The  intellectual  leader,  it  has  been 
shown,  tends  toward  wider  variation,  and  to  him  no 
doubt  should*  more  often  be  accorded  the  title  of  world 


IMMEDIATE  EFFECTIVENESS  309 

genius.  It  is  he  who  alone  in  the  travail  of  his  spirit 
gives  birth  to  the  idea  destined  to  master  the  multitude. 
But  the  executive,  no  solitary  mountain  climber,  no 
propounder  of  absolutes  or  ultimates,  it  is  true,  empha- 
sizes what  is  feasible  and,  close  knit  to  his  fellows,  moves 
with  them  toward  the  goal.     He,  too,  has  served. 

(4)  In  general^  the  more  numerous  the  agents  of  assimi- 
lation in  relation  to  the  assimilated  the  more  rapid  the 
process.  Mass  impact  usually  breaks  down  individual 
resistance  or  realigns  the  smaller  of  two  contending 
groups.  The  Slavonian,  buffeted  about  by  American- 
ism at  every  turn,  parts  with  his  native  tongue,  native 
costume,  native  mannerisms,  and,  before  long,  dresses, 
bargains,  and  swears  in  true  Yankee  style.  On  the  fringe 
of  Little  Judea,  that  compact  stronghold  of  Hebrewism 
planted  in  New  York's  East  Side,  man  after  man  de- 
taches himself  from  the  inner  core  by  moving  north- 
ward toward  Harlem,  in  the  end  being  engulfed  by  the 
city.  It  is  mass  which  here  operates  witii  cumulative 
force. 

It  would  follow  as  a  corollary  that  time  is  required  to 
develop  a  conquering  cause.  Mohammed  during  the 
first  three  years  of  his  mission  made  only  forty  converts, 
these,  too,  being  yoimg  persons,  strangers,  and  slaves. 
Jesus  left  but  twelve,  humble  folk  they  were,  to  preach 
the  gospel  imto  all  men,  and  his  faith,  like  Mohammed's, 
for  generations  moved  only  among  the  lowly.  The 
anti-slavery  sentiment  Garrison  found  for  several  years 
too  weak  to  remove  the  editor  of  the  Liberator  from  ab- 
ject poverty,  the  self-binder  industry  McCormick  with 
greatest  difficulty  urged  from  its  blacksmith-shop  origin, 
the  petroleum  field  was  not  expanded  until  year  after 
year  a  certain  lynx-eyed  Rockefeller  urged  it  forward  by 
dint  of  persistence  and  not  overscrupulous  methods.  It 
is  hard  to  develop  momentum. 


3IO     THE  FINAL  PROCESS:   ASSIMILATION 

The  momentum  once  established,  however,  adherents 
multiply.  Moody  by  evangelizing  Brooklyn,  Phila- 
delphia, and  even  Chicago,  fulfilled  a  prophecy  made 
once  when  his  hearers  were  only  a  handful,  "  It  is  slow 
work,  but  if  you  want  to  kindle  a  fire,  you  collect  a  bit 
of  pine  whittlings,  Hght  them  with  a  match,  and  keep 
blowing  until  they  blaze.  Then  you  pile  on  the  wood  1  " 
Mohammed's  cause  once  under  way  unified  Arabia  and 
threatened  before  long  to  engulf  all  Europe.  Jesus' 
twelve  have  since  multiplied  into  four  hundred  ninety- 
four  millions,  an  assimilating  host  bent,  its  leaders  now 
declare,  upon  the  Evangelization  of  the  World  in  this 
Generation.  In  a  very  real  sense  it  thus  becomes  true 
that  nothing  succeeds  like  success. 

Yet  the  outcome  does  not  rest  solely  upon  numbers. 
Were  such  true,  the  estabhshed  simply  because  it  was 
the  established  would  be  self -perpetuating ;  and  this 
clearly  is  not  always  so.  A  variation,  born  in  isolation 
but  nurtured  by  resolute  breast,  winning  a  minority  and 
these  well-organized  and  motivated,  again  and  again 
has  lain  the  majority  helpless  before  it.  The  truth 
here  entailed  perhaps  justifies  statement  as  the  final 
principle. 

(5)  Superiority  tends  to  dominate.  Who  does  not 
seek  power  and  who  would  not  ascend  into  the  high 
places  before  men  ?  In  truth,  scarce  no  one ;  the  well- 
girded,  the  altruistic,  the  designing,  the  visionary,  the 
hopeless  incompetent,  each  yearns  to  direct  and,  if  re- 
sponsive to  the  inner  motive  alone,  would  extend  his 
sway  over  group  after  group  of  subordinates.  In  so 
doing,  his  lust  for  dominance,  for  self-expansion  and 
personal  profit  very  possibly  would  be  gratified;  but 
what  of  the  claims  of  the  many  ? 

He  who  would  correctly  interpret  men  and  their  re- 
quirements must  view  both  in  terms  of  the  struggle  for 


MOST  FOR  LEAST  311 

existence.  Humanity  began  in  the  jungle,  and,  guided 
by  one  central  principle,  has  slowly  pushed  its  way  to- 
ward the  open.  This  principle  is  nothing  less  than 
greatest  gain  for  least  efort,  the  so-called  law  of  parsimony. 
To  maintain  his  hold,  the  executive  must  square  with 
it.  Not  every  man  who  says  "  Go  here,"  "  Go  there," 
sees  men  spring  to  do  his  bidding.  His  commands  ring 
true  and  he  himself  qualifies  as  an  executive  only  when 
these  men  if  obedient  to  him  produce  with  greater  effec- 
tiveness and  increased  benefit  to  themselves.  Subordi- 
nates place  themselves  under  his  control  because  they 
have  wants,  and  their  efforts  directed  by  him  yield  them 
increased  gratifications. 

Unmistakably  in  the  end,  the  executive  must  realize 
for  his  co-workers  the  fullest  liberty  compatible  with 
order,  the  most  thorough  equality  consistent  with  prog- 
ress, the  completest  fraternity  possible  with  self-preser- 
vation —  himself  a  toiler  that  others  through  him  may 
rise.  The  last  word  of  leadership  is  thus  one  with  the 
supreme  appeal  of  Christian  morals,  he  that  loseth  his 
life  shall  find  it. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  do  men  so  often  complain  that  their  wonderful  plans 
dwindle  into  such  meager  accomplishments? 

2.  Was  his  generation  at  fault  in  opposing  elements  in  Christ's 
teaching  we  now  prize? 

3.  Discuss:  "All  progress  is  due  to  the  coercion  of  an  indif- 
ferent majority  by  a  determined  minority." 

4.  Comparing  the  executives  of  the  past  with  those  of  the 
present,  what  policies  in  the  control  of  men  will  likely  be  worked 
out  in  the  future? 

5.  Summarize  briefly  the  chief  functions  of  an  executive. 

READINGS 
Ward,  Applied  Sociology,  Ch.  XI. 


APPENDIX 

A  STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF  EXECUTIVES 


APPENDIX 

In  the  preceding  pages,  the  general  discussion  was 
supplemented  by  data  of  a  statistical  nature.  These 
data,  because  they  probably  held  very  little  interest  for 
the  majority  of  readers,  were  not  commented  upon  at 
length  in  the  text.  However,  for  the  benefit  of  those 
desiring  further  details  concerning  this  material,  the 
following  information  is  being  presented  here : 

1.  The  Problem.  In  studying  executives,  it  is  both 
important  and  interesting  to  raise  the  questions:  In 
what  respects,  if  any,  do  they  differ  from  ordinary  men  ? 
Moreover,  do  they  differ  to  the  extent  that  a  type  group 
is  formed  ?  These  questions  of  variability,  if  their  answer 
in  full  be  attempted,  raise  a  wide  variety  of  considera- 
tions. For  instance,  are  boys  reared  in  wealthy  homes 
more  likely  to  become  executives  as  compared  with  boys 
from  humble  homes?  Does  belonging  to  a  religious 
organization,  as  the  Catholic  Church,  increase  one's 
chances  of  succeeding  as  a  railroad  president  ?  Are  good 
looks  a  handicap  to  the  candidate  for  Congress  ? 

It  is  true,  these  questions  appear  somewhat  theoretical, 
but  in  fact  they  are  far  less  so  than  many  over  which  end- 
less discussions  have  taken  place,  and  are  still,  for  that 
matter.  It  is  obvious  at  the  outset,  therefore,  that  one 
cannot  with  profit  enter  into  all  the  ramifications  of  the 
questions  stated  at  the  beginning  of  the  above  paragraph. 
All  phases  of  these  questions  are  not  equally  valuable, 
for  one  thing,  and  another  restricting  factor  is  found  in 
the  method  to  be  applied  in  solving  the  particular  phase 
selected,  to  which  we  now  turn. 

2.  Methods  of  Solution.  In  seeking  a  solution  to  the 
questions  stated,  the  executive's  variation  from  the  or- 
dinary man  and  trueness  to  his  own  type,  the  first  method 
likely  to  impress  one  as  feasible,  is  personal  observation. 
In  fact,  this  is  a  method  the  author  employed  diligently 

314 


APPENDIX  315 

and  with  profit  to  himself  when  in  the  course  of  his  regu- 
lar duties  he  for  several  months  had  daily  opportunity 
-to  converse  with  from  ten  to  fifteen  chief  executives. 
Moreover,  the  field  one  is  able  to  cover  by  personal  in- 
vestigation may  be  extended  considerably  by  conferences 
with  friends  and  acquaintances,  readings  in  daily  papers 
and  magazines,  and  a  persistent  study  of  biographies. 

This  material,  however  great  the  light  it  throws  on  the 
problems  under  consideration,  lacks  quantitative  definite- 
ness.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  data  of  a  statistical 
sort  were  felt  to  be  worth  while,  partly  for  the  informa- 
tion contained  in  the  data  themselves,  partly  as  a  check 
on  the  other  material  of  the  investigation. 

3.  Factors  Investigated.  When  it  came  to  deciding 
upon  the  factors  to  be  investigated,  much  depended  upon 
the  particular  means  employed  in  order  to  obtain  the 
information.  Such  possible  methods  as  personal  inves- 
tigation and  enumerators  were  rejected  in  view  of  the 
author's  finances  and  time  available,  and  a  question- 
naire to  be  sent  through  the  mails  was  decided  upon. 

The  problem  at  once  arose  as  to  what  questions  should 
be  submitted.  Needless  to  say,  the  information  one 
would  like  to  receive  from  these  executives  would  cover 
an  extremely  broad  scope;  in  fact  one  could  without 
difficulty  set  down  a  list  of  forty  or  fifty  questions  which 
it  would  be  desirable  to  know  about.  It  does  not  take 
long  experience  in  statistics  to  prove  that  desirable  is 
to  be  strictly  subordinated  to  possible. 

In  general,  the  more  questions  asked  the  fewer  replies 
received.  The  decision  as  to  full  information  or  numer- 
ous replies  thus  becomes  a  matter  of  relative  emphasis, 
for  though  the  investigator  may  have  either  he  cannot 
have  both.  A  few  preHminary  tests  in  this  particular 
instance  indicated  that  cutting  down  the  number  of 
questions  so  rapidly  increased  the  percentage  of  replies 


3i6  APPENDIX 

that  the  number  in  the  end  was  reduced  to  six.  Later 
on,  after  about  two  thirds  of  the  blanks  were  sent  out,  a 
seventh  question,  closely  related  to  the  two  which  pre- 
ceded it  on  the  schedule,  was  added. 

4.  The  Schedule.  In  order  to  increase  still  further  the 
percentage  of  replies  a  niunber  of  details  were  given  care- 
ful attention.  The  questions  themselves  were  printed 
on  a  postal  card,  the  investigator's  name  and  address 
being  placed  on  the  opposite  side.  These  questions  were 
made  simple  to  understand,  easy  to  answer,  and  the  in- 
formation they  called  for  offered  little  opportunity  for  bias. 

The  questions,  however,  being  of  a  personal  nature, 
the  recipient  might  feel  them  somewhat  inquisitorial, 
unless  this  danger  were  provided  for.  In  order  to  guard 
against  the  danger  and  at  the  same  time  encourage  the 
executive  to  reply,  a  short  explanation  was  given  of  the 
purpose  of  the  investigation  and  the  importance  of  in- 
cluding this  particular  reply  in  the  data.  To  lessen  the 
clerical  work  involved,  this  explanation  was  printed  on 
the  bottom  of  the  letterhead,  the  brief  letter  above  being 
typed  or  hand  written. 

These,  no  doubt,  are  minor  matters,  yet  any  one  fa- 
miliar with  the  questionnaire  method  will  agree  that  the 
percentage  of  replies  received,  as  shown  in  the  statistical 
summary,  is  gratifyingly  high.  It  is  all  the  more  so  when 
one  considers  that  these  men  represent  the  most  impor- 
tant executives  in  the  United  States. 

A  sample  of  the  schedule  is  here  shown  reduced  : 


^se TOeififjt  (gfci) mm  C?W- 

^00  at  HEatriage 

Number  of  Ci)iltitm  bom  to  sou 


♦*  gour  fatfjer. 

**    "   paternal  grantifatfjer.. 


APPENDIX  317 

5.  Accuracy  of  Replies.  The  proportion  of  schedules 
completely  filled  out  was  very  high.  For  instance,  in 
answers  regarding  the  weight  and  the  number  of  chil- 
dren the  percentage  was  approximately  ninety-seven  and 
ninety-nine  per  cent  respectively.  As  an  indication  of 
accuracy,  these  percentages  are  favorable. 

Each  individual  filling  out  the  schedule,  it  is  needless 
to  say,  was  responsible  for  the  accuracy  of  his  answers, 
and  in  only  certain  cases  was  the  correctness  of  his  state- 
ments even  questioned.  In  these  instances,  the  figures 
were  so  irregular  as  to  arouse  suspicion  and  a  letter  of 
inquiry  was  thereupon  sent.  If  no  reply  was  received, 
the  item  was  dropped  from  the  list. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  slight  changes  in  the  schedule 
by  which  the  degree  of  accuracy  desired  would  have 

been  indicated,  as  "Age  in  years ,  months ," 

"Height  in  feet ,  inches ,  quarter  inches ," 

would  have  been  useful  in  increasing  the  accuracy  of  these 
returns.  In  regard  to  height,  it  was  decided  after  some 
little  consideration  that  the  direction  "without  shoes'' 
would  draw  more  accurate  replies  than  the  direction 
"with  shoes,"  though  this  supposed  benefit  would  be 
partly  offset  by  the  contrast  with  the  neighboring 
item  with  its  direction  "with  clothing."  Later  on  for 
purposes  of  comparison  it  was  found  necessary  to  deal 
with  these  height  returns  as  with  shoes,  by  adding  one 
inch.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  whereas 
six  feet  is  an  attractive  figure  and  might  be  expected  to 
show  an  undue  proportionate  frequency  such  as  the  cen- 
sus returns  show  at  zero  and  five  in  age  classifications,  the 
frequency  distribution  so  favorable  to  the  item  six  feet 
was  compiled  from  schedule  items  five  feet  eleven  inches, 
the  statements  of  six  feet  on  the  schedules  themselves 
showing  a  sharp  decrease  in  frequency. 

6.  Scope  of  Inquiry.    It  being  impossible  to  secure  data 


3i8  APPENDIX 

from  every  executive  in  the  United  States,  the  selection 
of  representative  cases  was  necessary.  Business  has  been 
represented  by  nine  groups  of  men,  a  total  of  495  cases, 
as  shown  in  the  statistical  summary.  Political  leaders 
comprise  three  groups,  267  cases ;  law  two  groups,  93 
cases.  Public  service  includes  four  groups,  150  cases. 
Labor  leaders  are  represented  by  two  groups,  54  cases, 
reformers  by  four  groups  of  120  cases,  religious  leaders 
by  three  groups  totaling  273  cases,  educational  leaders 
by  three  groups  of  162  cases.  The  last  might  be  termed 
in  a  general  way  pubUc  leaders,  and  comprises  groups  25, 
33,  and  34,  a  total  of  158  cases.  The  other  groups  were 
studied  for  comparative  purposes,  as  has  been  indicated 
in  previous  chapters. 

It  may  seem  that  undue  emphasis  has  been  placed  upon 
the  business  field,  495  copies  of  the  questionnaire  having 
been  sent  to  business  men  as  compared  to  267  to  poHtical 
leaders  or  120  to  reformers.  The  vaUdity  of  this  criti- 
cism, if  offered,  would  depend  largely  upon  one's  concep- 
tion of  the  term  "executive.^'  In  view  of  the  treatment 
of  the  subject  in  the  preceding  chapters,  it  is  beHeved 
that  the  questionnaire  has  not  given  undue  emphasis  to 
any  particular  group  of  executives,  although  the  reader 
is  in  position  to  decide  for  himself  upon  this  point. 

The  composition  of  the  various  groups  is  commented 
upon  briefly  in  the  notes  following  the  statistical  sum- 
mary. It  may  be  added  that  in  selecting  the  names 
to  which  questionnaires  were  to  be  sent,  an  earnest  ef- 
fort was  made  to  secure  true  samples. 

7.  Adequacy  of  Data.  Since  returns  have  been  tabu- 
lated for  numerous  groups  of  leaders,  one  test  concerning 
the  adequacy  of  data  is  whether  or  not  these  returns  from 
the  various  groups  seem  to  harmonize.  As  shown  in  the 
statistical  summary,  this  appears  to  be  the  case. 

It  happens,  moreover,  that  this  test  can  be  applied 


APPENDIX  319 

in  a  somewhat  different  way.  After  some  1600  copies  of 
the  questionnaire  were  sent  out  and  the  returns  tabu- 
lated, it  was  thought  well  to  draw  up  additional  lists 
and  secure  returns  from  these  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
the  first  results.  An  additional  question  was  added  to 
the  second  questionnaire,  the  number  of  children  born  to 
the  paternal  grandfather,  and,  as  is  shown  in  the  statis- 
tical summary,  the  questionnaire  sent  to  groups  2,  5,  6, 
8,  9,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  36,  37,  43,  44,  45,  and  46.  The 
returns  from  these  sixteen  additional  groups  appear  to 
substantiate  the  results  first  secured. 

In  such  anthropometric  data  as  height  and  weight,  a 
normal  frequency  distribution  is  to  be  expected.  Hence 
the  degree  of  skewness  encountered  is  another  test 
concerning  the  adequacy  of  the  data  here  presented. 
The  frequency  tables  on  height  and  weight  given  on 
later  pages  have  been  studied  from  this  point  of  view, 
and  the  degree  of  skewness  shown  appears  to  justify 
the  view  that  the  data  are  adequate  for  th^  purpose 
to  which  they  have  been  put  in  the  preceding  chapters. 
It  may  be  added  that  the  following  rough  measure  of 
skewness  was  the  one  employed : 

,  3  (mean  —  median) 

skewness  =  —^ -, — ^-i — • — ^^  * 

standard  deviation 

The  use  of  this  formula  is  discussed  critically  in 
Yule's  Theory  of  Statistics  (see  especially  page  150). 
The  frequency  tables  on  pages  325-331  may  be  made 
use  of  by  those  desiring  to  apply  more  precise  measures 
for  determining  the  degree  of  skewness. 


320 


APPENDIX 


STATISTICAL 


QtTESnONNAlRE 

Age 

AT 

Group  (a) 

Age 

Mar- 

UN- 

riage: 

Sent 

Rec'd 

Aver- 
age 

RTV.n 

I    RaUroad  Presidents 

100 

55 

55-5 

26.7 

I 

2    Insurance  Presidents 

SO 

39 

49.2 

28.0 

4 

3    Manufacturers 

50 

32 

62.5 

26.5 

I 

4    Merchants 

50 

32 

60.7 

29.2 

2 

5    Sales  Managers 

60 

23 

42.8 

27.1 

2 

6    Foremen  Roundhouses 

25 

9 

40.1 

25-5 

0 

7    Factory  Supts. 

35 

18 

45-7 

25-9 

I 

8    Bank  Presidents 

50 

34 

53-7 

27.6 

0 

9    Corporation  Directors 

75 

45 

54.5 

27.2 

3 

lo    Governors 

65 

46 

51.2 

28.6 

5 

II    U.  S.  Senators 

91 

48 

55.8 

26.4 

3 

12    Mayors 

no 

69 

46.8 

28.1 

5 

13    Chief  Justices  State  Courts 

45 

32 

61.7 

28.4 

I 

14    Pres.  State  Bar  Assoc. 

48 

38 

54.0 

29.0 

0 

15    Chiefs  of  Police 

50 

21 

57-0 

24.7 

0 

16    Chiefs  of  Fire  Dept. 

25 

15 

57.2 

26.8 

0 

17    Supts.  Street  Cleaning 

25 

9 

52.4 

26.0 

0 

18    Prison  Wardens 

50 

28 

53-3 

25.8 

I 

19    Pres.  Labor  Organizations 

40 

26 

48.3 

24.6 

0 

20    A.  F.  L.  Organizers 

14 

7 

43-6 

27-5 

0 

21     Socialist  Organizers 

20 

II 

48.7 

30.2 

0 

22    Anti-Saloon  League  Org. 

20 

13 

47.6 

24-3 

0 

23    Anti-Saloon  League  Officials 

21 

13 

54.0 

253 

0 

24    Reformers 

59 

42 

48.6 

26.7 

3 

25    World's  Work  List 

58 

33 

55.6 

28.9 

2 

26    Pres.  Fraternal  Orders 

61 

40 

52.6 

24.6 

3 

27    Bishops 

115 

83 

60.6 

26.8 

4 

28    Y.  M.  C.  A.  Secretaries 

10 

9 

49.0 

26.1 

0 

29    Pres.  Religious  Org. 

28 

15 

57-2 

27.0 

I 

30    University  Presidents 

76 

61 

51.8 

27.6 

0 

31    City  Schools  Supts. 

36 

26 

52.6 

28.0 

I 

32    Economists  &  Sociologists 

50 

36 

48.9 

28.0 

0 

33    Lecturers 

50 

33 

46.8 

25.4 

4 

APPENDIX 


321 


SUMMARY 


Number  of  Children 

rmr-nREN 

Weight 

Childless 

Height  (A) 

Gen.  Av.  (c) 

Av.  per 
Fam.  (d) 

Father  (e) 

Grand- 
father (/) 

3.63 

3.70 

2 

S.78 

186.3 

5:10.9       I 

2.74 

3.05 

2 

6.02 

6.41 

175.2 

5:    9.7        2 

3.50 

3.61 

5 

6.53 

169.9 

5:    9.0       3 

340 

3-64 

7 

6.36 

163.7 

5:    9.4      4 

1.82 

2.00 

4 

5-47 

5.50 

182.8 

5 :  lo.i       5 

2.CX3 

2.00 

2 

7.11 

6.87 

177.0 

5:    9.3      6 

2.61 

2.78 

2 

6.05 

186.7 

5:    9.8      7 

2.85 

2.85 

3 

5.61 

8.00 

186.8 

5 :  10.7      8 

2.88 

3-09 

4 

6.17 

6.41 

179.8 

5 :  10.4      9 

2.30 

2.58 

9 

6.80 

182.0 

5:11.2     10 

3.14 

3-35 

6 

7.43 

185.0 

5:  10.6     II 

2.79 

3.01 

7 

6.66 

176.9 

5 :  lo.o     12 

3.21 

3-32 

3 

7.56 

169.0 

5:    9.6    13 

3-07 

3-07 

5 

7.13 

6.88 

171.5 

5:10.5     14 

4.09 

4.09 

4 

7.09 

6.CX5 

202.4 

5:11.1     15 

4.00 

4.00 

I 

5.80 

5.41 

189.4 

5 :  10.3     16 

3.62 

3-62 

2 

6.88 

7.25 

216.7 

5:11.3     17 

3-67 

3.81 

2 

7.92 

8.II 

191. 2 

5:11.3     18 

3.69 

3.69 

2 

7.34 

186.3 

5 :  10.4     19 

3.83 

3.83 

0 

6.33 

186.I 

5:    8.2     20 

2.50 

2.54 

3 

9.36 

171.O 

5 :  10.8     21 

2.46 

2.46 

4 

6.15 

184.9 

5 :  10.3     22 

4.2s 

4.25 

0 

6.00 

176.3 

5:    9.2     23 

2.76 

2.91 

9 

5.12 

181. 7 

5:11.4     24 

2.51 

2.67 

5 

6.36 

182.2 

5 :  10.3     25 

2.60 

2.81 

3 

66.2 

190.4 

5:    9-6    26 

4.27 

4.55 

7 

6.57 

176.4 

5 :  10.6    27 

3.11 

3.11 

2 

5.00 

188.6 

5 :  10.3     28 

3.60 

3-85 

I 

5.66 

169.8 

5:10.4    29 

2.62 

2.62 

12 

5.85 

181.6 

5 :  10.8    30 

2.84 

2.84 

2 

5.80 

178.6 

5:10.4    31 

2-55 

2.55 

3 

S.44 

170.8 

5 :  10.8    32 

2.90 

3-32 

3 

6.81 

162.3 

5:    9.2    33 

322 


APPENDIX 


Questionnaire 

Age 

AT 

Group  (a) 

Age 

Mar- 
riage: 

UN- 

MAR- 

Sent 

Rec'd 

Aver- 
age 

RIED 

34    Publishers 

50 

34 

56.5 

28.2 

0 

35    Psychologists 

50 

43 

45-0 

30.0 

6 

36    Plulosophers 

50 

37 

44.2 

29.2 

2 

37    Inventors 

45 

26 

47.8 

26.S 

3 

38    Musicians 

50 

23 

51.8 

30.0 

2 

39    Artists 

50 

31 

53.2 

30.4 

7 

40    Authors 

SO 

42 

55-5 

28.2 

7 

41    Preachers  Small  Towns 

50 

32 

45-7 

26.2 

0 

42    Pres.  Small  Colleges 

35 

26 

50.1 

26.5 

0 

43    Principals  of  Schools 

75 

30 

35.2 

26.5 

10 

44    Station  Agents 

50 

29 

33-1 

23-7 

I 

45    County  Attorneys 

50 

32 

40.3 

27.2 

4 

46    Salesmen 

100 

55 

31.6 

26.8 

17 

47    Farmers 

75 

32 

60.5 

26.4 

0 

48    Bankrupts 

20 

0 

(a)  The  source  of  these  names  in  some  cases,  perhaps,  deserve 
a  brief  explanation :  Lists  3,  4,  38,  39,  and  40  were  derived  from 
Who's  Who;  5  are  from  a  large  commercial  organization ;  6  are  from 
various  division  points,  several  roads  being  included ;  7  came  from 
large  industrial  concerns;  2,  8,  and  9  were  derived  from  finan- 
cial directories ;  20,  21,  22,  and  23  were  furnished  me  from  the 
respective  headquarters;  12  were  from  mayors  of  the  largest 
cities ;  24  refers  to  the  executive  secretaries  of  various  reformative 
organizations,  such  as  the  good  roads  movement,  the  abolition  of 
child  labor;  25  was  drawn  from  the  fifty-eight  men  whose  pictures 
were  given  a  full  page  in  the  World's  Work  during  several  months 
in  191 1  (foreigners  and  accounts  due  to  death  were  excluded,  as 
what  was  wanted  was  a  list  of  men  molding  affairs  at  present) ; 
28  came  from  the  list  furnished  by  headquarters ;  30  refers  to  the 
state   universities   and   larger   privately   endowed   institutions; 

32  and  36  were  drawn  from  the  catalogs  of  leading  universities ; 

33  was  derived  from  magazines  devoted  to  lyceums;  35  from 
Cattell's  American  Men  of  Science;  37  was  kindly  furnished  by 
Mimn  and  Company ;  44  and  45  were  picked  at  random  from  va- 


APPENDIX 


323 


Number  01 

f  Children 

Children 

Childless 

Weight 

Height  (A) 

Gen.Av.(c) 

Av.  per 
Fam.  (d) 

Father  (c) 

Grand- 
father (J) 

3.44 

3-44 

2 

6.79 

171.9 

5:    7.9     34 

2.18 

2.54 

5 

6.21 

155.3 

5:    9.7     35 

1.70 

1.80 

10 

5.62 

6.35 

158.4 

5:    9.6     36 

300 

3.39 

3 

6.53 

5-33 

169.4 

5:10.2     37 

2.13 

2.33 

6 

5.73 

161.9 

5:    5.6     38 

2.32 

3.00 

3 

5.61 

165.7 

5:10.1     39 

2.28 

2.74 

5 

5.63 

158.0 

5 :  10.2     40 

3-34 

3.34 

I 

6.84 

159.4 

5:    8.8    41 

3-46 

346 

2 

6.53 

164.0 

5:    9-6    42 

1.70 

2.55 

3 

7.34 

7.46 

157.6 

5:    9.7     43 

2.00 

2.07 

4 

6.03 

7.00 

154.6 

5:    9-4    44 

2.21 

2.62 

6 

6.38 

8.44 

162.4 

5:    8.1     45 

.96 

1.52 

14 

4.96 

5.38 

157.0 

5:    9.1     46 

5-93 

5.93 

0 

6.84 

166.9 

5 : 10       47 
48 

nous  sections  of  the  country ;  46  were  furnished  by  two  leading 
typewriter  companies ;  48  came  from  the  lists  given  by  the  New 
York  Times.  The  others  were  secured  in  the  main  from  directories 
and  the  World  Almanac,  191 1  and  191 2  editions.  The  selections 
were  made  according  to  the  rules  of  sampling. 

(6)  This  refers  only  to  those  married. 

(c)  Refers  to  total  nimiber,  including  both  married  and  un- 
married. 

{d)  Refers  only  to  those  married;   also  to  number  born. 

(e)  Refers  to  number  born,  not  necessarily  to  number  living. 

(J)  Same  as  above.  This  question  was  not  included  in  all  the 
questionnaires  sent;   hence  the  small  number  of  returns. 

(g)  Weight  includes  clothing  in  all  instances.  It  is  the  prac- 
tice in  gymnasiums  to  deduct  ten  pounds  for  clothing  should  net 
weight  be  desired. 

{h)  Height  is  given  in  feet,  inches,  and  tenths  of  inches,  and 
includes  shoes  in  all  instances.  Gymnasiums  deduct  one  inch  for 
shoes  if  net  height  is  desired. 


324  APPENDIX 

8.  Table  of  Averages.  The  preceding  table  presents  the 
general  results  of  the  investigation,  the  material  being  sum- 
marized in  a  series  of  averages.  These  averages  were  ar- 
rived at  by  adding  the  items  shown  on  the  original  sched- 
ules, and  hence  are  more  accurate  as  averages  than  those 
given  in  later  frequency  tables  which  were  arrived  at  by 
using  the  values  of  the  mid-point  of  the  class  interval.  The 
notes  following  the  table  perhaps  will  make  sufficiently  plain 
the  source  from  which  the  original  names  and  addresses 
were  secured,  and  the  definition  of  the  terms  employed  in 
the  table's  headings.  The  first  two  columns  naturally 
interest  the  author  much  more  than  they  do  the  reader. 

9.  Results.  In  stating  briefly  some  of  the  results  of 
this  investigation  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  author, 
not  being  a  technician  in  statistics  nor  primarily  in- 
terested in  statistical  technique,  has  not  applied  the  re- 
finements of  such  technique  to  these  data.  He  has  made 
use  of  the  rougher  methods  only  since  they  seemed  ade- 
quate for  the  purpose  at  hand.  Nevertheless,  it  is  hoped 
that  by  presenting  the  following  frequency  tables,  those 
who  desire  to  apply  some,  of  the  more  refined  methods 
may  have  available  raw  material  with  which  to  work. 

A  number  of  interesting  conclusions  might  be  drawn 
from  the  material  collected,  but  we  must  forego  dis- 
cussion of  all  save  the  two  main  questions  proposed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  inquiry ;  that  is,  the  difference  if 
any  between  executives  and  others,  and  the  possibility 
of  their  undergoing  selection  which  would  result  in  the 
formation  of  a  type  group.  In  the  preceding  chapters, 
these  questions  have  come  up  for  consideration,  but  at 
this  point  certain  statistical  evidence  may  be  presented 
and  summarized.  We  shall  accordingly  consider  the 
material  bearing  on  age,  height,  weight,  age  at  marriage, 
niunber  of  children,  joining  of  associations,  and  voca- 
tional persistence. 


APPENDIX 


3*5 


lo.  Frequency  Tables.  The  terms  used  as  titles  in  the 
following  tables  perhaps  deserve  a  brief  explanation. 
"Executives"  are  the  first  thirty-four  groups  shown  in 
the  above  statistical  summary.  "Lesser  Executives" 
are  the  small  town  leaders,  groups  forty-one  to  forty- 
seven  inclusive  in  the  above  summary.  "Intellectuals" 
are  groups  thirty-five  to  forty  inclusive.  "  Merchants  and 
Manufacturers"  are  from  the  National  Cyclopedia  of  Biog- 
raphy ;  "Artists  and  Authors"  are  from  the  same  source. 
"Reformers"  and  "Non-Reformers"  are  those  discussed 
on  pages  265-268  of  the  text.  "Policyholders"  are  from 
the  Medico- Actuarial  Mortality  Investigation  mentioned 
in  Chapter  III.    The  tables  will  now  follow  in  order. 


Frequency  Distribution  According 

,  TO  Age 

Age  in  Yeam 

Execu- 
tives 

Lesser 
Execu- 
tives 

Non-Re- 
formers 

Reformers 

Intel- 
lectuals 

20— 

2 

20 

25- 

8 

30 

9 

3 

30- 

19 

41 

16 

10 

35- 

77 

31 

3 

15 

24 

40- 

132 

28 

4 

26 

27 

45- 

170 

22 

7 

17 

38 

50- 

222 

20 

18 

II 

29 

55- 

135 

12 

23 

7 

16 

60- 

136 

12 

23 

3 

8 

65- 

81 

7 

16 

I 

10 

70- 

52 

3 

10 

3 

5 

75- 

23 

3 

4 

8 

80- 

II 

2 

3 

2 

85- 

0 

0 

90- 

2 

I 

Number  of  cases 

1070 

231 

III 

108 

181 

Average  age 

53-7 

41.5 

57-7 

40.9 

50.4 

Probable  error 

±.228 

±.607 

±.614 

±.668 

±.620 

Standard  deviation 

II. I 

13-7 

9.6 

10.3 

12.4 

Coefficient  of  variation 

21 

33 

16 

25 

25 

326 


APPENDIX 


Frequency  Distribution  According 

TO  Height* 

Height  in  Inches 

Execu- 
tives 

Lesser 
Execu- 
tives 

Intel- 
lectuals 

Policyholders 

53- 

I 

54- 

0 

55- 

4 

56- 

5 

57- 

17 

58- 

19 

59- 

38 

6o- 

396 

6i- 

3 

441 

62- 

I 

I 

1,198 

63- 

2 

2 

2 

2,625 

64- 

2 

4 

I 

6,591 

^r 

6 

II 

2 

12,130 

66- 

34 

21 

9 

22,057 

67- 

42 

24 

17 

28,086 

68- 

93 

36 

28 

37,544 

69- 

114 

42 

27 

32,248 

70- 

150 

32 

23 

32,718 

71- 

156 

27 

20 

23,014 

72- 

176 

13 

28 

14,585 

73- 

no 

II 

17 

4,783 

74- 

74 

0 

IS 

2,342 

75- 

39 

I 

4 

669 

76- 

16 

2 

229 

77- 

14 

2 

53 

78- 

3 

17 

79- 

I 

3 

80- 

I 

3 

81- 

2 

82- 

0 

83- 

I 

Number  of  cases 

1037 

225 

197 

221,819 

Average  height 

71.4 

69.3 

70.7 

68.5 

Probable  error 

±.054 

±.103 

±.129 

±.003 

Standard  deviation 

2.6 

2.3 

2.7 

2.4 

Coefficient  of  variation 

4 

3 

4 

4 

*  The  accuracy  of  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these  figures 
would  have  been  increased  were  they  classified  strictly  according  to  the 


APPENDIX  327 

Frequency  Distribution  According  to  Weight  ^ 


Weight  in  Poxnros 

Executives 

Lesser  Ex- 
ecutives 

Intellectuai^ 

100  — 

I 

I 

110  — 

4 

2 

120  — 

22 

6 

14 

130- 

36 

29 

16 

140  — 

85 

47 

29 

Iso- 

80 

46 

34 

lde - 

144 

42 

35 

170- 

165 

19 

26 

180- 

145 

17 

21 

190- 

127 

14 

9 

2CX>  — 

85 

5 

7 

210- 

66 

6 

s 

220  — 

49 

I 

I 

230- 

18 

I 

I 

240  — 

3 

0 

250- 

14 

I 

260  — 

3 

270  — 

4 

280- 

I 

Number  of  cases 

1052 

233 

202 

Average  weight 

181. 1 

161.0 

162.9 

Probable  error 

±.58 

±•95 

±.115 

Standard  deviation 

28.1 

21.5 

24.3 

Coefl5cient  of  variation 

16 

13 

15 

element  of  race.  A  question  concerning  race  was  not  added  to  the  sched- 
ule, owing  to  the  belief  that  the  decreased  number  of  replies  would  be  more 
serious  than  the  importance  of  the  information  justified.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  names  to  which  the  questionnaire  was  sent  does  not  indicate 
that  this  element  has  been  of  importance,  save  perhaps  in  one  group,  the 
musicians.  Here  are  found  several  names  such  as  CaufFman,  Goetschen, 
and  Huss ;  and  the  musician's  low  rank  in  height,  as  shown  in  the  statisti- 
cal summary,  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  racial  factor. 

^  As  was  shown  in  the  preceding  table  on  age  distribution,  these  three 
groups  differ  in  average  age  and  hence  a  correction  may  be  made  in  this 
respect.  On  the  basis  of  the  Medico- Actuarial  Mortality  Investigation 
(page  13),  the  lesser  executives  if  equivalent  in  age  to  the  executives 
would  be  approximately  3.4  lb.  heavier,  and  the  intellectuals  if  equiva- 


328  APPENDIX 

Frequency  Distribution  According  to  Age  at  Marriage 


Age  in  Yeabs 

Execu- 
tives 

Lesser 
Execu- 
tives 

Intel- 
lectual 

Merchants 
AND  Manu- 
facturers 

Artists 

and 
Authors 

15- 
20— 

25- 
30- 
35- 
40- 

45- 
50- 
55- 
60- 

65- 

10 

334 

426 

161 

69 

15 

9 

I 

0 

0 

2 

3 

75 

92 

28 

2 

2 

0 

I 

I 
29 
83 
37 
II 

13 
2 

2 
26 
29 

22 

6 

0 
0 
0 

I 

12 

8 

2 
I 
0 
I 

Number  of  cases 
Average  age 
Probable  error 
Standard  deviation 
Coefficient  of  variation 

1027 
27.7 

±.115 
5-5 
20 

203 
26.6 

±.207 
4.4 
17 

176 
29.6 
±.289 

5-7 
19 

86 

28.0 

±.413 

5.7 

21 

70 

25.2 

±.628 

7.8 

31 

lent  in  age  to  the  executives  would  be  approximately  .7  lb.  lighter. 
These  corrections,  as  will  be  recognized  by  those  familiar  with  refined 
methods,  are  rough  approximations  only. 

As  was  pointed  out  in  an  earlier  chapter,  comparable  measurements  of 
the  policyholders  are  lacking.  But  policyholders  of  approximately  the 
same  age  as  the  average  for  the  executives  (53  yr.,  which  is  the  age  of 
each  case  and  not  as  with  the  executives  an  average  age,  with  some  above 
and  some  under)  and  the  same  average  height  as  all  the  policyholders 
(86,5  in.)  are  164.5  lb.  weight. 


APPENDIX 


3^9 


Frequency  Distribution  According  to  Number  of 
Children  ^ 


Intel- 
lectuals 

Merchants 

Artists 

Number  or  Children  Born 

Executives 

and  Manu- 
facturers 

AND 

Authors 

O 

137 

37 

25 

59 

I 

129 

20 

17 

15 

2 

i8o 

44 

16 

9 

3 

193 

34 

15 

6 

4 

123 

23 

9 

4 

5 

99 

5 

9 

3 

6 

74 

5 

2 

I 

7 

38 

4 

3 

I 

8 

20 

4 

3 

0 

9 

17 

4 

I 

2 

lO 

8 

II 

2 

12 

I 

13 

6 

14 

IS 

Number  of  cases 

1027 

180 

100 

IOC 

Average  number 

3.1 

2.5 

2.4 

I.I 

Probable  error 

±  .050 

±.105 

±.074 

±.074 

Standard  deviation 

2.4 

2.1 

I.I 

I.I 

Coefficient  of  variation 

76 

84 

46 

102 

*  The  biographies  in  the  National  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography 
from  which  the  data  concerning  the  merchants,  manufacturers,  artists, 
and  authors  were  secured,  seemed  to  follow  quite  closely  a  standardized 
form,  one  item  of  which  was  the  number  of  children.  Accordingly, 
cases  in  which  mention  of  children  were  omitted  were  marked  zero.  It 
is  likely,  however,  that  this  has  resulted  in  error,  the  averages  shown 
being  somewhat  lower  than  the  actual  situation  would  warrant. 


330 


APPENDIX 


Frequency  Distribution  According  to  Number  of  Chil- 
dren Born  to  Father  and  Paternal  Grandfather 


Father's 

FAnm-Y 

Grandfather's  Famely 

NtncBEK  OF  Children  Born 

Executives 

InteUectiials 

Executives 

Intellectuals 

I 

33 

5 

4 

I 

2 

8l 

22 

10 

5 

3 

IOC 

20 

20 

7 

4 

107 

23 

24 

6 

5 

120 

22 

33 

II 

6 

132 

31 

33 

7 

7 

112 

27 

39 

8 

8 

118 

16 

27 

4 

9 

98 

10 

20 

6 

lO 

63 

13 

5 

3 

II 

39 

4 

II 

0 

12 

27 

2 

12 

2 

13 

18 

I 

9 

I 

14 

6 

I 

0 

0 

IS 

8 

I 

I 

0 

i6 

4 

3 

0 

17 

I 

3 

I 

i8 

2 

I 

19 

I 

0 

20 

I 

2 

Number  of  cases 

1071 

198 

257 

62 

Average  number 

6.4 

5.8 

7-1 

6.1 

Probable  error 

±.o6s 

±.134 

±.146 

±.256 

Standard  deviation 

3-2 

2.8 

3-5 

3.0 

Coefficient  of  variation 

50 

48 

49 

49 

APPENDIX 


331 


Frequency         Distribution    Frequency  Distribution 

According  to  Joining    of       According    to   Vocational 
Associations  *  Persistence  "^ 


Mer- 

chants 

Artists 

Points  on  Marking 

AND 

AND 

Scale 

Manu- 

Au- 

fac- 

thors 

turers 

Under    5 

40 

65 

5- 

35 

18 

10- 

12 

9 

15- 

6 

5 

20- 

3 

3 

25- 

0 

30- 

I 

35- 

0 

40- 

0 

45- 

I 

50- 

I 

55- 

0 

60- 

I 

Nmnber  of  cases 

100 

100 

Average  number 

8.8 

5.6 

Probable  error 

±.660 

±'•343 

Standard  devia- 

tion 

Q.8 

5.1 

Coefficient  of  va- 

riation 

III 

91 

Mer- 

chants 

Artists 

Points  on  Marking 

AND 

AND 

Scale 

Manu- 

Au- 

fac- 

thors 

turers 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

I 

3 

2 

8 

4 

I 

3 

5 

9 

9 

6 

15 

4 

7 

7 

12 

8 

17 

8 

9 

22 

28 

10 

24 

26 

Number  of  cases 

100 

100 

Average  number 

7.7 

7.6 

Probable  error 

±.444 

±.505 

Standard  devia- 

tion 

6.6 

7.5 

Coefficient  of  va- 

riation 

86 

98 

*  In  order  to  measure  association  joining,  one  hundred  biographies 
of  artists,  authors,  actors,  and  inventors  (mostly  artists  and  authors, 
hence  the  above  title)  in  the  supplementary  volume  of  the  'National 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography  were  studied  and  compared  with  an 
equal  number  of  merchants'  and  manufacturers'  biographies.  All  organi- 
zations strictly  business  were  barred.  Membership  in  a  real  estate  associa- 
tion, for  example,  was  omitted,  while  the  trusteeship  of  a  "fresh-air  farm" 
counted  two  points.  The  following  scale  of  rating  points  was  used: 
6  Chief  organizer  of  new  association.  5  Joint  organizer  of  new  associa- 
tion. 4  President  of  an  association.  3  Vice  president  or  other  officer. 
2  Director  or  trustee,     i  Member. 

In  examining  the  above  table  we  find  three  unusual  cases,  business 


33^  APPENDIX 

II.  Conclusions.  The  averages  and  the  coefScients  of 
variation  shown  in  the  preceding  tables  on  frequency  dis- 
tribution may  now  for  convenience  be  placed  in  summary 
form,  as  has  been  done  on  page  334.  The  bearing  of  this 
material  upon  the  two  main  questions  proposed  may  now 
receive  brief  statement : 

//  appears  that  the  executives  are  taller  and  heavier  than 
ordinary  men.  One  might  add  that  they  came  from 
larger  families  than  the  intellectuals  and  that  in  turn 
they  tend  to  rear  larger  families;   also  that  they  join 

men  whose  joining  of  non-business  organizations  totaled  over  45,  50, 
and  60  points  respectively.  On  examining  the  original  accounts,  it  ap- 
pears these  men  were  politicians  as  well  as  business  men,  and  although 
according  to  the  Cyclopedia  they  were  primarily  merchants  and  manu- 
facturers, in  reality  it  is  chiefly  through  their  political  activities  that  they 
were  known.  If  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  politicians,  it  is  difficult  to  see 
why  membership  in  many  of  these  organizations  was  not  directly  in  line 
with  their  primary  interests  and  hence  under  the  above  definition  should 
be  excluded.  If  these  three  cases  are  omitted,  we  have :  cases  97,  aver- 
age 7.42,  standard  deviation  5.89,  and  coefl&cient  of  variation  .65. 

'^  While  the  above  data  from  the  National  Cyclopedia  was  being  com- 
piled, a  similar  list  was  made  of  vocational  persistence.  The  two 
hundred  cases  were  marked  on  the  following  scale  of  ten  points,  devised 
to  represent  the  attitude  taken  toward  their  life  work : 

10  Continued  one  line  of  activity  as  sole  business  throughout  life. 

9  Continued  one  line  thoroughout  life,  but  also  engaged  in  related 
sublines. 

8  Continued  one  line,  but  added  unrelated  sublines.  The  cleavage 
between  this  and  the  above  is  that  here  his  personal  attention  is 
given  to  the  subline  whereas  there  money  might  have  served 
instead,  his  life  interest  being  in  No.  8  partially  diverted. 

7  Changed  in  maturity  to  closely  related  line  of  work.  And  it  may 
be  added  that  in  none  of  these  do  "  changes  "  refer  to  boyish 
interests  and  positions  held.  No.  7  means  no  serious  break  in 
personal  interests. 

6  Changed  in  maturity  to  somewhat  related  line  of  work. 

5  Changed  in  maturity  to  entirely  different  line  of  work  —  a  clear 
break  in  life  interest.  By  "  entirely  different "  is  meant  work 
in  which  his  former  experience  would  be  of  little  or  no  service. 

4  Made  two  changes,  closely  related. 

3  Made  two  changes,  somewhat  related. 

2  Made  two  changes,  imrelated. 

I  Changed  three  or  more  times. 


APPENDIX 


333 


associations  more  freely.  These  latter  points,  however, 
are  perhaps  more  significant  when  viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  second  question,  the  extent  to  which 
executives  have  undergone  selection. 

It  appears  that  the  executives  are  subject  to  a  somewhat 
stricter  selection  than  the  intellectuals.  In  age  the  exec- 
utives show  a  lower  coefficient  of  variation  than  either 
the  lesser  executives  or  the  intellectuals,  and  the  non- 
reformers,  comparable  to  executives  under  present  con- 
ditions, are  similarly  more  closely  selected  in  age  than 
the  revolutionary  leaders.  In  the  number  of  their  chil- 
dren, the  executives  come  nearer  the  normal  (on  the  basis 
that  it  requires  three  children  to  realize  family  per- 

It  may  aid  to  clearness  if  the  above  frequency  distribution  be  pre- 
sented by  a  graph. 


30 

- 

\ 

•^ 

^ 

25 

Exe 

'utiv 

1 

^^ 

B^W 

'     ■ 

Iiit< 

llect'in^lR 

1  f 

20 

A 

^' 

15 

-. 

^^* 

/I 

f 

/ 

'n 

.*' 

1 

10 

/ 

/ 

N 

1 

i 

»k 

/ 

\ 

/ 

X 

1 

5 

/ 

\ 

k. 

/ 

/ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/f 

X 

f 

^J 

'- 

/- 

""*" 

**- 

— ■ 

/ 

4  5  6  7  8 

Number  of  Points  as  per  Marking  Scale 

Fig.  6.  — Vocational  Persistence 


334 


APPENDIX 


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On  On 


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V  'i-H    r?   D   s  aj   ca   •-' 


APPENDIX  33S 

petuity)  than  do  the  intellectuals,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  as  compared  with 
the  artists  and  authors,  the  coefficients  of  variation  in 
the  four  instances  showing  a  narrower  variability  for  the 
executives,  including  the  merchants  and  manufacturers. 
In  the  attitude  toward  their  life  work,  vocational  persist- 
ency, the  executives  show  less  variability.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  material  is  neutral  or  even  slightly  adverse  as 
to  height,  age  at  marriage,  and  number  of  children  in 
fathers'  and  grandfathers'  families.  The  item  as  to 
association  membership,  though  as  given  is  slightly 
adverse,  would  tend  to  strengthen  the  above  conclusion,- 
provided  the  criticism  mentioned  in  the  note  following 
the  frequency  table  above  is  accepted.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  while  the  material  in  the  main  appears 
to  indicate  the  above  conclusion  is  valid,  it  is  not  free 
from  opposing  elements. 

On  the  basis  of  the  two  conclusions  stated,  one  may  be 
inclined  to  believe  the  net  results  of  the  investigation 
disappointingly  meager.  Yet  executives  and  intellect- 
uals are  such  vital  forces  in  society  that  scarce  any  data 
bearing  upon  them  is  without  significance.  It  is  hoped 
especially  that,  while  the  rougher  statistical  methods 
employed  by  the  author  seemed  adequate  for  the  pur- 
pose to  which  he  wished  to  put  these  data,  others  with 
more  precise  technique  will  find  in  the  foregoing  tables 
raw  materials  which  may  be  of  service  to  them  and, 
through  them,  of  benefit  to  science. 


INDEX 


Ability,  intellectual,  as  a  source  of 
personality,  iio-m.  See  Execu- 
tive ability. 

Abnormal  mental  condition,  as  a 
factor  YD.  suggestibility,  139. 

Achievement  of  success,  a  source  of 
prestige,  124-125. 

Acting,  influence  of,  in  leadership, 
161-163. 

Action  and  reaction,  successive,  in- 
volved by  interest,  256-258. 

Actions,  reaction  of,  on  mental  states, 
52,  133-134- 

Adams,  Brooks,  Theory  of  Social 
Revolutions,  quoted,  264  n. 

Adaptability,  the  executive's,  293  ff. ; 
demands  for,  upon  the  executive, 
294,  295 ;  surplus  in  relation  to,  295- 
297 ;  experience  in  relation  to,  297- 
298 ;  age  selection  test  of,  298. 

Addams,  Jane,  quoted  to  show  the 
common  distortion  of  values,  129  n. ; 
at  Progressive  Party  convention  at 
Chicago,  221  n. ;  on  lack  of  idealism 
in  workers,  224. 

Admiration,  ascendancy  secured 
through,  1 1 5-1 1 6. 

Adverse  pressure,  the  executive  and, 
12-15.    See  Opposition. 

Advertising,  securing  originality  in, 
63;  individuality  in,  120;  stand- 
ardization of,  234. 

Age,  allowance  for,  in  considering 
physique  of  executives,  33  n. ;  ele- 
ment of,  in  reform  movements,  264- 
270. 

Alarm  which  accompanies  innovation, 
260-261. 


Alertness,  importance  of,  to  effective 
effort,  56-58. 

American  Radiator  Company,  promo- 
tion system  of,  155;  bulletin  pub- 
lished by,  for  employees,  229-230. 

American  Revolution,  average  age  of 
leaders  in,  265,  268. 

Analysis  of  men,  in  building  an  organi- 
zation, 80-82. 

Analytic  power,  value  of,  in  competi- 
tive contest,  285. 

Angell,  Psychology,  quoted,  249  n.; 
cited,  279. 

Anger,  degeneration  of  emulation  into, 
159- 

Animal  groups,  leadership  among, 
1-2,  6;   mutual  aid  among,  4. 

Anti-Saloon  League  ofl5cials  and  or- 
ganizers, physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 

Anti-Slavery  Agitation,  ages  of  re- 
formers and  of  non-reformers  in, 
266,  268. 

Apathy  in  organizations,  96;  as  a 
restriction  upon  the  executive, 
245  ff.;  methods  of  overcoming, 
by  arousing  and  maintaining  interest, 
246-258;  twilight  zone  between 
interest  and,  258. 

Aristocracy,  weapons  of,  in  contest 
with  democracy,  284. 

Art,  use  of,  in  securing  leadership, 
161  ff . ;  and  the  executive,  166-171 ; 
elements  of  decadence  in,  171-172. 

Artists,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28.  See 
Intellectuals. 

Ascendancy.  See  Leadership  and  Per- 
sonality. 

Asquith,  Herbert,  executive  leader's 
face-to-face  relations  with  opponents 
illustrated  by,  15  n. 

337 


338 


INDEX 


Assimilation,  process  of,  301  £f . ;  rela- 
tion of  rapidity  of,  to  number  of 
points  of  contact,  302  £E. ;  opposition 
retards,  304;  varies  with  degree  of 
variation  in  innovation,  307  flf . ;  the 
more  numerous  the  agents  of,  the 
more  rapid  the  process,  309. 

Athletic  contests,  wise  use  of  emula- 
tion  in,    159. 

Attention,  shifting  of,  a  type  of  illusion, 
176-178. 

Attitudes,  transmissibility  of  bodily 
and  mental,  52-53,   i33-i34- 

Auctioneers,  appreciation  of  pulsa- 
tions of  interest  by,  256. 

Augustine,  St.,  praise  of  love  by,  118  n. 

Authority,  effort  to  attain,  as  a  factor 
in  a  stimulating  social  system,  38; 
bases  of,  188-194. 

Authors,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28.  See 
Intellectuals. 

Awe,  ascendancy  secured  through,  116. 


B 


Bagehot,  Walter,  Physics  and  Politics, 

quoted,  99  n,,   141,   260,   282-283; 

cited,  306. 
Baldwin,  definition  of  suggestion  by, 

136 ;  Mental  Development,  cited,  296. 
Bank  presidents,  physique  and  family 

statistics  of,  25,  27,  28. 
Barker,  The  Nervous  System,  cited,  20. 
Barton,  James  L.,  estimate  by,  267  n. 
Beveridge,  Senator,  speech  at  Chicago 

convention  quoted,  222  n. 
Bigotry,  a  scar  in  character,  186. 
Bishops,  rank  of,  as  leaders,  according 

to  height  and  weight,  25,  27,  28; 

physique  as  compared  with  preachers 

in  small  towns,  32. 
Bismarck,  power  of  work,  16;   power 

to  overfow  the  unusual,  17-18. 
Bruce,   Robert,   physical  prowess  of, 

a  qualification  for  leadership,   109, 

163. 
Bryan,  W.  J.,  an  example  of  emotional 

power  drawn  from  positive  bodily 


attitudes,  52;  development  of  power 
by,  as  needed,  56 ;  quality  of  initia- 
tive in,  64;  appreciation  of  value 
of  the  psychological  moment  shown 
by,  248 ;  devices  of,  for  maintaining 
interest,  257. 

Bryce,  James,  American  Commonwealth, 
quoted,  103, 

Building  an  organization,  80-83. 

Bulletins,  instruction  of  employees 
through,   229-230. 

Burdens,  sharing  of,  by  executives,  90- 
92. 

Burke,  Edmund,  on  mental  correlates 
of  physical  acts,  52. 

Buxton,  Charles  Roden,  estimate  by, 
267  n. 


Callers,   limiting  loss  of  time  from, 

87-88. 
Carnegie,  Andrew,  use  of  emulation 

method  by,  153;   promotion  policy 

of,  15s. 
Carter,    When    Railroads    were    New, 

quoted,  149-150. 
Cassatt,   A.   J.,   openness  of,   to  im- 
pressions, 58-59;  quoted  on  burden 

sharing  by  executives,  90. 
Causation,    errors   regarding,   a   type 

of  illusion,  178^180. 
Centralization  of  industry,  demand  for 

executive  ability  created  by,  2. 
Ceremonialism,  a  method  of  opposing 

truth,   184-185. 
Ceremonies,     stimulation    power    of, 

164-166. 
Chiefs  of  fire  and  police  departments, 

physique,  25,  27,  28. 
China,  ages  of  reformers  and  of  non- 
reformers  in  awakening  of,  267-268. 
Classification  of  material  by  executives, 

85-86. 
Clearness  in  ideas,  importance  of,  44- 

45- 
Clubs    for    education    of    employees, 

230-231. 


INDEX 


339 


Collective  action,  stimulation  to, 
through  art,  165 ;  a  concomitant 
to,  found  in  followers'  tendency  to 
admit  inferiority,  190. 

Collective  ideal  of  effectiveness,  ful- 
fillment of,  4-6. 

Commons,  Trade  Unionism  and  Labor 
Problems,  quoted,  75  n. 

Competition,  a  limit  placed  upon  the 
executive,  275  ff.;  reason  for  de- 
velopment of,  275;  attitude  of  con- 
testants in,  275-278;  weapons  of, 
278-279;  three  types  of  contest, 
279-286 ;  conditions  determining 
choice  of  prestige  or  logic,  287-291. 
See  also  Emulation. 

Complexity  of  modem  life,  necessity 
of  leadership  due  to,  2-3. 

Concentration  of  current  of  interest, 

254-255. 
Concrete    problems,     application    of 

knowledge  to,  in  effective  education, 

237-238. 
Conformity,  struggle  between  innova- 
tion and,  12,  259  ff. 
Conservatism,   development  of,   with 

age,   269-270. 
Constructiveness,        power        gained 

through  exercise  of  instinct  of,  53- 

54- 
Contact  points,   relation   of  rapidity 

of  assimilation  to  number  of,  302  ff. 
Contest  element,  introduction  of,  into 

work,  151-155. 
Control,    how    to    secure,     101-105; 

art  as  a  means  of,  1 69-1 71 ;  idealism 

a  method  of  indirect,  223-224. 
Conviction,  intensity  of,  as  a  means  to 

power,  49-50- 
Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social 

Order,  quoted,  40  n.,   114  n.,   118, 

132-133. 
Cooperation,  art  as  a  stimulus  to,  165. 
Cost  rate,   payment  of  workers  by, 

210. 
Credulity,   a  factor  in  suggestibility, 

138-140 ;  part  played  by,  in  illusion, 

183. 


Criticism,  effect  on  suggestion  values 

of  treatment  of,  145. 
Cumulative  results  rendered  possible 

by  infectiousness  of  suggestion,  146- 

148. 
Curtis  Publishing  Company,  efl&dency 

work  of,  234-235. 
Custom,  overcoming  of  force  of,  by 

leaders,  12-15,  259  ff. 


D 


Danger,  laying  emphasis  upon,  as  one 
means  of  opposing  truth,  185-186. 

Darwin,  Charles,  conservation  of 
nervous  energy  by,  296. 

Death,  growth  of  prestige  after,  127. 

Decadence,  elements  of,  in  art,  171- 
172. 

Deception,  antiquity  of,  174-175; 
as  a  fine  art,  175.     See  Illusion. 

Defeat,  suggestion  power  through  not 
acknowledging,  145. 

Definiteness  in  procedure,  a  result  of 
instruction,    238-239. 

Desk  and  desk  devices  as  mechanical 
aids  of  executives,  87. 

Detachment,  sense  of,  in  discipline, 
199-200. 

Details,  acquiring  of,  the  first  step  in 
effective  education,   236-237. 

Development,  rapid,  as  a  result  of 
instruction,  239. 

Diagrams,  organization,  79. 

Difference,  opposition  originating  in  a 
sense  of,  259;  lessening  opposition 
by  minimizing  degree  of,  304-305. 
See  Variation. 

Digestion  and  energy,  20. 

Dill,  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to 
Marcus  Aurelius,  quotations  from, 
123,  178  n. 

Discipline,  power  of,  for  group  motiva- 
tion, 188  ff. ;  bases  of  authority, 
188-194;  secured  through  grada- 
tion of  penalties,  194-197;  social, 
moral,  or  religious  supplements  to 
secure    effectiveness    in,     197-198; 


340 


INDEX 


degree  of  publicity,  198-199 ;  value 
of  formalized,  199;  a  sense  of  de- 
tachment, 199-200;  importance  of 
certainty,  200-201. 

Discussion,  introduction  of,  in  competi- 
tive contests,  282-283;  fear  of,  by 
those  vmable  to  justify  themselves 
by  fact,  283. 

Dispatch,  secured  through  alertness, 
57. 

Dissociation,  relation  between  degrees 
of,  and  degrees  of  suggestibility, 
140. 

Distortion  of  values,  a  type  of  illusion, 
180-182. 

Distractions,  elimination  of,  to  main- 
tain interest,  255-256. 

Division  of  labor  made  possible  by 
organization,  74-75,  80. 

Dogma,  curbing  of  reason  by,  283- 
284. 

Dimcan,  Herbert  Spencer,  quoted,  296. 

Duration,  an  element  of  suggestion 
power,  140-141. 


Eaton,  J.  S.,  Education  for  Efficiency 
in  Railroad  Service,  quoted,  232. 

Edison  Company,  New  York,  school 
maintained   by,    231. 

Effectiveness,  modem  demand  for, 
4;  collective  ideal  of,  and  method 
of  fulfilbnent,  4-6 ;  in  effort,  55  ff . ; 
in  development  of  power,  55-56; 
gained  through  originality,  58^59; 
importance  of  focalization  to,  62- 
63;  initiative  and,  63-64;  securing 
through  education,  2272.;  in  teach- 
ing, 236-238. 

Effort,  effectiveness  in,  55  ff. ;  im- 
portance of  alertness  to  effective, 
56-58;  systematic  personal,  85- 
92 ;  the  source  of,  96  ff . ;  true  springs 
of,  found  in  the  minds  of  followers, 
98-100. 

Ellis,  Havelock,  cited  and  quoted, 
169  n.,  184  n. 


Emblems,  stimulation  power  of,  166- 
167. 

Emotional  control,  a  source  of  per- 
sonality, 109-110. 

Emotions,  power  secured  through 
influence  of,  52-53;  focus  of,  52; 
physical  resultants,  52;  trans- 
missibility  of,  133. 

Employees,  selection  of,  80-82;  re- 
warding of,  207-213;  ihstruction  of, 
228-232. 

Emulation,  group  motivation  through, 
149  ff. ;  ways  of  applying  policy 
of,  151-155;  good  and  bad  features 
of,  156-159;  dangers  to  be  guarded 
against,  159. 

Energy,  the  loltimate  source  of  execu- 
tive ability,  19;  source  of  bodily, 
19-20;  not  definitely  limited  by 
size,  35;  fluctuations  in  rate  of, 
35-36;  effect  of  a  stimulating  en- 
vironment, 37-41;  effective  ex- 
penditure of  executive,  permitted 
by  organizing  ability,  77-78;  stimu- 
lation of  his  group's,  by  an  execu- 
tive, 95-100;  not  merely  one  but 
several  means  of  releasing,  100- 
loi;  control  of,  to  insure  results, 
101-105;  as  an  element  in  sugges- 
tion power,  137-138. 

Environment,  influence  of  a  stimulat- 
ing, on  energizing  rate,  37-41. 

Envy,  d^eneration  of  emulation  into, 
159. 

Erie  Railroad,  method  of  getting  best 
out  of  engineers  by,  166  n. 

Error,  part  taken  by,  in  illusion,  183- 
184. 

Evangelists,  examples  of  suggestion 
power  from,  143  n. ;  distortion  of 
values  by,  182. 

Executive,  modem  conditions  which 
create  demand  for  the,  1-6;  dif- 
ference between  intellectual  type  of 
leader  and,  7;  three  main  lines  of 
investigation  of,  7-8;  question 
whether  a  selected  individual,  8; 
similarity  of  tasks  of,  11 ;  rise  of,  in 


INDEX 


341 


times  of  transition,  12-13;  need 
of  power  to  work,  16-17 ;  physique 
of,  22-34;  fluctuations  in  energy 
rate  of,  35-36;  four  chief  means  of 
increasing  pwwer,  37-53 ;  advantages 
to,  of  organization,  73-84;  stimulat- 
ing and  controlling  of  men  by,  95- 
105;  matter  of  personality,  106-120; 
imitation  prestige  of,  124-134 ;  power 
of  suggestion,  135-148;  employment 
of  emulation,  149-159 ;  utilization  of 
art  by,  166-17 1;  use  of  illusion, 
174-186;  methods  of  discipline, 
188-201;  rewards  and  their  appor- 
tionment, 203-214;  power  in  ideal- 
ism, 216-225;  instruction  of  subor- 
dinates, 227-240;  limits  upon, 
245  flF.;  maintaining  of  interest  by, 
246-258;  arousing  of  opposition, 
259-273;  encoimtering  of  compe- 
tition, 275-291;  adaptability  of, 
293  flF.;  system  of  rigid  selection 
continually  applied  to,  298-299. 

Executive  ability,  need  of,  funda- 
mental in  all  organized  effort,  1-2; 
present-day  opportunity  for,  2; 
elements  in  modem  civilization 
which  create  demand  for,  2-6; 
need  for,  in  special  emergencies,  6-7 ; 
energy  the  ultimate  source  of,  19. 

Executive  secretaries,  physique  of, 
25,  27,  28. 

Expectancy,  value  of,  for  positiveness 
in  suggestion,  145-146;  character- 
istic of  effective  idealism,  222-223. 

F 

Face-to-face  relations,  of  leader  with 
his  opponents,  14-15;  value  of,  to 
executives,  11 8-1 20. 

Fact  and  representation,  distance  be- 
tween, an  element  in  width  of  varia- 
tion in  innovation,  270-272. 

Factory  superintendents,  physique,  25, 
27,  28. 

Faith  in  self,  value  of,  48-49;  a  factor 
conditioning  power  of  suggestion,  137. 


Families,  size  of,  Appendix. 

Fasting,  suggestibility  heightened  by, 
139. 

Fatigue,  increased  suggestibility  due 
to,  139. 

Fear,  leader's  appeal  to,  113. 

Feeling,  modification  of  play  of  mere 
instinctive  activity  by  element  of,  97. 

Flowers,  frequency  distribution  shown 
by,  5  n. 

Focalization,  importance  of,  to  effec- 
tive effort,  62-63. 

Force,  effect  of  degree  of,  in  urging 
innovations,    272-273. 

Formalized  discipline,  199. 

French  Revolution,  value  of  the 
psychological  moment  shown  by, 
247;  ages  of  reformers  and  of  non- 
reformers  in,  266,  268. 

Frequency  distribution  of  human 
qualities,  5. 

G 

Galton,  Francis,  cited  on  frequency 
distribution,  5  n. ;  quoted,  62  n.; 
on  Herbert  Spencer's  habits,  296. 

Game  element,  introduction  of,  into 
work,    151-155- 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  contemporary 
views  of,  14. 

Generalizations,  development  of,  in 
effective  education,   237. 

Gilbreth,  Frank  B.,  eflficiency  experi- 
ments of,  234. 

Godkin,  Problems  of  Modern  Democ- 
racy, quoted,  286. 

Governors  of  states,  physique  of,  25, 
27,  28. 

Groos,  Karl,  Play  of  Man,  cited,  174. 

Guilt,  certainty  of,  before  infliction  of 
penalty,  194-195- 


Habits,  substitution  of,  for  nervous 
elements  by  means  of  organization, 
75-76- 


342 


INDEX 


Harriman,  E.  H.,  dispatch  illustrated 
by,  57  n. 

Harrison,  Frederic,  quoted,  232. 

Harvey,  Daniel  Webster,  quoted,  113  n. 

Hate,  to  be  guarded  against  in  using 
emulation  policy,  159. 

Headlam,  Bismarck,  quoted,  i8. 

Height,  of  executives,  25,  28;  table  of 
leaders  ranked  according  to,  25, 

Higginson,  T.  W.,  anecdote  concern- 
ing prestige,  125  n. 

Him,  The  Origins  of  Art,  quoted,  164, 
165. 

Hold-over  files,  use  of,  87,  88. 

Homogeneity,  like  response  to  stimu- 
lation insured  by,   103-104. 

Honor,  reward  foimd  in,  206. 

Howell,  Text-Book  oj  Physiology,  cited, 
20,  loi  n. 

Hypnotic  power,  sources  of,  135-136, 
13^-140 


I 


Idea,  the  luminous,  43-44;  char- 
acteristics, 44-46;   power  of,  46. 

Idealism,  power  of,  216;  derivation 
of,  216-217;  disadvantages  com- 
bined with  advantages  in,  217; 
cultivation  and  use  by  the  execu- 
tive, 218;  phases  of,  218-221; 
illustrated  by  the  Progressive  Party, 
220  n.;  factors  which  condition 
efl&ciency  of,  as  a  practical  policy, 
221-225;  indirect  control  through, 
223-224. 

Idealizing  tendency,  a  source  of 
prestige,  126-127. 

Ideals,  right  adjustment  of,  for  effec- 
tiveness, 222. 

Ideas,  relation  of,  to  action,  43;  sys- 
tematic production  of  new,  60; 
persistence  of,  252 ;  the  pain  which 
accompanies  new,  260. 

Illusion,  group  motivation  through, 
174  ff. ;  as  a  fine  art,  175 ;  types  of, 
176  ff. ;  the  shifting  of  attention, 
176-178;     errors   regarding    causa- 


tion, 178-180;  the  distortion  of 
values,  180-182 ;  method  of  account- 
ing for  theory  of,  182-186. 

Imagination,  a  factor  in  making  ideal- 
ism effective,  221-222. 

Imitation,  force  of,  122 ;  of  the  superior 
by  the  inferior,  122-123 ;  in  manage- 
ment, 127-134;  factors  which  condi- 
tion use  of,  in  management,  131- 
134- 

Imitation  prestige,  122-123;  in  posi- 
tions of  power,  123-124;  in  posses- 
sion of  wealth,  124;  in  the  achieve- 
ment of  success,  124-125;  in  the 
idealizing  tendency,  126-127;  effect 
on  suggestion  power,  138. 

Impulsive  temperament,  characteristic 
of  successful  executives,  49. 

Incentive,  the  necessity  for,  45; 
use  of,  in  group  motivation,  149  ff . ; 
necessity  for,  in  using  emulation 
policy,  157-158. 

Independence,  basis  of  authority 
found  in  degree  of,  of  subject,  191- 
194- 

Individuality  of  the  executive,  11-92. 

Industrial  Workers  of  the  World, 
hierarchy   established  by,   293-294. 

Infectiousness,  of  motor  impulses, 
133-134;  of  suggestion  renders 
cumulative  results  possible,  146-148. 

Initiative  necessary  to  effective  effort, 
63-64. 

Innovation,  struggle  between  con- 
formity and,  12;  arousing  of  op- 
position to,  259  ff. ;  mental  disturb- 
ances which  accompany,  259-261 ; 
causes  of  opposition,  259-261 ;  factor 
of  width  of  variation  in,  in  determin- 
ing degree  of  opposition,  261-272; 
effect  of  degree  of  force  with  which 
urged,  272-273. 

Insincerity,  a  scar  in  character,  186. 

Instincts,  springs  of  all  human  activity 
found  in  the,  96 ;  classification  of,  97. 

Instruction,  group  motivation  through, 
227  ff. ;  forms  of,  228-232 ;  question 
as  to  what  shall  be  taught,  232-235 ; 


INDEX 


343 


securing  effectiveness  in,  236-238; 
results  of,  in  definite  procedure, 
rapid  development,  and  tentative 
attitudes,  238-240, 

Insurance  presidents,  physique  of,  25, 
27,  28. 

Intellect,  part  taken  by  the,  in  adjust- 
ment of  man  to  his  environment,  97. 

Intellectual  ability,  as  a  source  of 
personality,  iio-iii. 

Intellectuals,  7;  executives  compared 
with,  as  to  physique,  26-29 ;  number 
of  children  of,  as  compared  with 
executives,  Appendix ;  age  of,  at 
marriage  as  compared  with  execu- 
tives, Appendix;  vocational  persis- 
tence of,  Appendix ;  social  activities 
of,  Appendix ;  age-selection  test  ap- 
plied to.  Appendix. 

Interest,  enlisting  and  maintaining 
subordinates',  246  ff. ;  successive 
action  and  reaction  in,  256-258; 
relation  between  element  of,  and 
degree  of  opposition  to  innovations, 
263-270;  contact  points  for  purposes 
of  assimilation  furnished  by,  303. 

Inventors,  physique  of,  26,  27,  28.  See 
Intellectuals. 


Jacobs,  Luther,  cited,  161. 

James,  William,  cited  and  quoted, 
52,  53  n.,  56  n.,  98,  128,  183,  186, 
223,  246  n.,  250,  252  n.,  256,  278. 

Japan,  ages  of  reformers  and  of  non- 
reformers  in .  Modernizing  of,  267, 
268. 

Jealousy,  danger  of,  in  emulation 
policy,  159. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  quoted  on  advan- 
tages of  digestive  powers,  20 ;  lumi- 
nous idea  held  by,  45;  Webster's 
impression   of,    127, 

Jenks,  History  of  Politics,  quoted,  13, 
311  n.,  312. 

Joseph  II  of  Austria,  experience  as  an 
eflficiency  engineer,  262-263. 


Kaffirs,  collective  action  by,  in  wars, 

165. 
Karens  of   Burma,  a  motto  of   the, 

99. 
Keiser  Company,  disciplinary  methods 

of,  197-198. 
Koran,   doctrine  of  predestination  in 

the,     179;      quotation     concerning 

obedience  from,  1 81-182. 
Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  cited,  loi  n. 


Labor  force,  analysis  of,  in  building  an 
organization,  80-82. 

Labor  organizers,  physique  of,  25,  27, 
28. 

Law,  John,  and  the  Mississippi  Bubble, 
147,  270-271. 

Leaders,  statistics  of  physique  of,  25, 
27,  28,  Appendix;  game  element 
introduced  into  work  by  rivalry  be- 
tween followers  and,  151-152.  See 
Executive. 

Leadership,  universal  need  of,  for 
effective  group  action,  1-2;  intel- 
lectual and  executive,  the  two  types 
of,  7;  primary  qualifications  for, 
107-112. 

Le  Bon,  Gustav,  The  Crowd,  quoted, 
106,  107,  137  n.;  Psychology  of 
Revolution,  quoted,  191. 

Lecturers,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 

Lectures  on  salesmanship,  229. 

Libraries  for  instruction  of  employees, 
229. 

Limits  upon  the  executive,  245-311. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  analytic  power  of, 
285  n. ;  quoted  on  persuasiveness 
in  argvunent,  291  n. 

Lodge,  H.  C,  Daniel  Webster,  quoted, 
106. 

Loeb,  books  by,  cited,  19. 

Logic,  prestige  opposed  to,  in  competi- 
tive contest,  282-284 ;  logic  against, 
285-286;      conditions    determining 


344 


INDEX 


choice  between  prestige  and,  287- 
291. 

Love,  ascendancy  secured  through,  118. 

Loyalty,  control  through  develop- 
ment of,  103. 

Luminovis  idea,  influence  of  the,  on 
action,  43-46. 


M 


McDougall,  William,  classification  of 
instincts  by,  97 ;  cited  and  quoted, 
113,  IIS,  ii7i  136,  151  n, 

Machiavelli,  The  Prince,  quoted,  184- 
i8s. 

Machines,  supplementing  men  by, 
through  organization,  83-84. 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  Method  of  the  Recita- 
tion, cited,  236  n. 

Malleson,  Life  of  Robert  Clive,  cited, 
14,   39- 

Management,  force  of  imitation  in, 
127-134. 

Manufacturers,  physique  of,  25,  27, 
28. 

Marshall,  John,  analytic  power  of, 
28s  n. 

Mass  phenomenon,  suggestion  as  a, 
146-148. 

Mass  suggestion,  power  of,  141-142. 

Material,  classification  and  subordina- 
tion of,  by  executives,  85-87. 

Maxwell,  History  of  Randolph  County, 
W.  Va.,  quoted,  182. 

Mayors,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 

Meat-packing  establishments,  organi- 
zation shown  in,  75  n. 

Mechanical  contrivances  substituted 
for  mental  processes  through  or- 
ganization, 76,  87-89. 

Medico- Actuarial  Mortality  Investiga- 
tion statistics,  29  fif.,  299. 

Memory,  aids  of  the,  for  executives, 
88. 

Men,  choice  of,  in  building  an  organi- 
zation, 80-82. 

Mental  attitudes,  transmissibility  of, 
52-53.  133-134. 


Mentality,  effect  of  state  of,  on  sug- 
gestibility,   139-140. 

Merchants,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28, 

Mind,  organization  type  of,  78-80; 
stimulation  and  control  as  matters 
of  the,  98-101,  104-ios;  rewards 
which  consist  in  matters  of  the,  203- 
204. 

Minds  of  followers,  true  springs  of 
effort  foimd  in,  98-101 ;  source  of 
control  foxmd  in,  104-105. 

Mnemonic  devices,  use  of,  60. 

Mobs,  suggestion  value  of  expectancy 
shown  by,  146;  omiulative  results 
of  infectiousness  of  suggestion  shown 
by,  147. 

Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  quoted, 
127  n.,  306  n. 

Moody,  Dwight  L.,  contemporary 
views  of,  14. 

Morris,  Railroad  Administration, 
quoted,  90-91. 

Motivating  the  group,  methods  of,  95- 
241. 

Multitude,  control  through  subordina- 
tion to  the  democratic,  102-103. 

Munsterberg,  Hugo,  Psychology  and 
Industrial  Efficiency,  cited,  82. 

Music,  stimulation  through,   164-165. 

Musicians,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28.  See 
Intellectuals. 

Mutuality,  ideal  of,  2i8r-2i9. 


N 


Napoleon  I,  power  of  work  of,  17; 
methods  of  work,  64-67;  disaster 
resulting  to,  from  reluctance  to  share 
burdens,  90;  power  of  personality 
of,  107;  use  of  illusion  by,  177-178; 
an  example  of  favorable  influence  of 
surplus  upon  vitality,  297  n. 

Napoleon  III,  use  of  rewards  by, 
205. 

National  Cash  Register  Company, 
trips  utilized  by,  for  education  of 
employees,   230. 

Nervousness,  causes  of,  53  n. 


INDEX 


34S 


Nervous  system,  connection  of,  with 

energy,  19-20. 
New  Freedom,  the,  206  n. 
Noises,    elimination    of,    to    promote 

eflficiency,   255-256. 


Objective  temperament,  an  element 
in  suggestion  power,  138. 

Opportunity,  offered  the  leader  by  the 
unusual,  17-19;  utilization  of, 
through  alertness,  57-58. 

Opposition,  surmovmting  of,  by  leaders, 
12-15;  the  arousing  of,  259  fif. ; 
causes  of,  259-261;  factors  which 
determine  how  high  it  shall  mount, 
261  flf. ;  ages  of  leaders  in  movements 
of,  265-268;  means  of  lessening, 
304-306;  a  hindrance  to  assimila- 
tion, 304-306. 

Orators,  alertness  as  a  necessary  qual- 
ity of,  57. 

Organization,  advantages  of,  73  S.; 
mult^)lication  of  a  leader  through, 
73-74;  division  of  labor  made 
possible  by,  74-75;  permits  sub- 
stitution of  habits  and  mechanical 
contrivances  for  more  exi)ensive  ner- 
vous elements,  75-76,  83;  the  most 
effective  plans  and  policies  the  results 
of,  76 ;  a  source  of  stimulation  and  sta- 
bilization to  executives,  76-77 ;  ability 
for,  permits  efl&dent  expenditure  of 
executive  energy,  77-78;  applica- 
tion of,  78  ff . ;  the  organization  point 
of  view,  78-79 ;  building  an,  80-83 ; 
supplementing  men  by  machines, 
83-84;  as  applied  to  the  executive 
himself,  85  ff. ;  classification  and 
subordination  of  material,  85-87; 
mechanical  aids,  87-89;  the  day's 
work  planned,  89 ;  sharing  burdens, 
90-92 ;  imitation  increased  in  scope 
through,  130-131. 

Organization  chart,  79. 

Originality,  source  of,  and  value,  58- 
61. 


Pain  accompanying  a  new  idea,  260. 

Parsimony,  law  of,  317. 

Partnership,  an  enlightened,  a  factor 
conditioning  the  efladency  of  ideal- 
ism, 224-226. 

Payment.    See  Rewards. 

Penalties,  gradation  of,  to  realize 
effectiveness  in  discipline,  194-197. 

Perkins,  Charles  E.,  working  prin- 
ciples, quoted,  90-91. 

Personality,  as  a  source  for  securing 
ascendancy,  106  ff.;  sources  of, 
107-112;  effect  upon  followers,  112 
ff.;  defined,  112;  typical  appeals 
through  which  followers  may  be 
affected,  11 2-118;  the  use  of,  118- 
120;  organization  of,  120;  influ- 
ence of  imitation,  122-134;  ele- 
ments of,  which  condition  sugges- 
tion power,  136-138. 

Personal  power,  source  of,  11  ff. 

Philosophers,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 
See  Intellectuals. 

Physique,  of  executives,  22  ff. ;  statis- 
tics, Appendix. 

Piece  rate,  paymentfof  workers  by,  210; 
incentive  supplied  by,  212-213. 

Planning  the  day's  work,  by  execu- 
tives,  89. 

Plymouth  Cordage  Company,  girls* 
club  at,  230-231. 

Policy  holders,  compared  in  physique 
with  executives,  29-30. 

Political  work,  illustration  of  power 
of  mass  suggestion  in,  142. 

Politics,  use  of  suggestion  in,  135; 
contest  element  in,  153-154;  illu- 
sion in,  175,  176,  177,  179- 

Positions  of  power,  imitation  prestige 
from,  123-124. 

Positiveness,  relation  between  sug- 
gestion values  and  degree  of,  144-146. 

Possession  of  wealth,  prestige  in,  124. 

Power,  a  stimulating  environment  as  a 
factor  in  increasing,  37-41 ;  increase 
of,  through  the  luminous  idea,  43- 


346 


INDEX 


46;  means  for  securing  increased, 
through  the  set  task,  the  blocked 
retreat,  faith  in  self,  the  impulsive 
temperament,  and  intensity  of 
conviction,  46-50;  influence  of 
emotions  on,  50-53;  possibility  of 
development,  53;  effectiveness  in 
development  of,  55-56;  exercise  of, 
through  personality,  106  ff. 

Premium  rate,  payment  of  workers 
by,  211. 

Prestige,  source  of  natural,  ip.  a  pro- 
nounced development  of  essential 
qualities,  112;  qualities  by  which 
secured,  11 2-1 18;  influence  of 
imitation,  122-127 ;  effect  of  natural 
and  imitation,  on  suggestion  power, 
137,  138;  authority  prestige,  189; 
use  of  prestige  against,  in  competi- 
tive contests,  280-282;  opposed 
to  logic,  282-284;  conditions  deter- 
mining choice  between  logic  and, 
287-291. 

Privilege,  weapons  of,  284. 

Professors,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 
See  Intellectuals. 

Progressive  Party,  idealism  illustrated 
by,  220  n. 

Promotion  policy,  use  of,  with  em- 
ployees,   155. 

Protestant  Reformation,  ages  of  re- 
formers in,  compared  with  non- 
reformers,  265,  268. 

Prowess,  physical,  as  a  source  of  per- 
sonality, 108-109,  163. 

Prussia,  ages  of  reformers  and  of  non- 
reformers  in  Regeneration  of,  266, 
268. 

Psychological  moment  in  the  control 
of  men,  57,  246-249. 

Psychological  tests  of  employees,  82. 

Psychologists,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 
See  Intellectuals. 

Publicity,  degree  of,  of  discipline,  198- 
199. 

Publishers,  physique  of  25,  27,  28. 

Pulitzer,  Joseph,  on  prestige  attached 
to  wealth,  124. 


Pulsations,  interest  a  matter  of,  256. 
Punishment,  definiteness  of,  necessary 

to  effectiveness  in  discipline,  195. 
Puritan  Revolution,  ages  of  reformers 

and  of  non-reformers  in,  265,  268. 


R 


Racial  subordination,  control  through, 
102. 

Railroad  building,  force  of  emula- 
tion in,  149-150. 

Railroad  executives,  physique  of, 
25,  27,  28;  physique  compared  with 
station  agents,  32. 

Railroads,  use  of  emulation  method 
in  management  of,  153;  use  of  art 
by  executives,  in  treatment  of  em- 
ployees,   166. 

Records,  use  of,  with  workers,  to  excite 
emulation,  154. 

Reformation  activity,  relation  be- 
tween periods  of,  and  the  leadership 
of  young  men,  263-270. 

Reformers,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 

Religious  persecution,  dangers  of,  as 
means  of  discipline,  197. 

Repetition,  suggestion  through,  140- 
141. 

Results,  apportioning  rewards  accord- 
ing to,  207-208. 

Reverence,  creation  of,  and  personal- 
ity's appeal  to,  116-117. 

Rewards,  use  of,  in  emulation  policy, 
158;  as  a  means  of  group  motiva- 
tion, 203  ff. ;  the  variety  of,  204- 
207;  principles  for  apportioning, 
207-213;  methodof  bestowing,  213- 
214. 

Rhythm,  common  action  secured  by, 
165. 

Rivalry.    See  Emulation. 

Roberts,  New  Immigration,  quoted, 
176  n.,  192  n. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  intensity  of 
opposition  to,  14;  action  repre- 
sented by,  49;  development  of 
power  by,  as  needed,  56. 


INDEX 


347 


Rosebery,  William  Pitt,  quoted,  175, 
247. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  books  by,  cited  and  quoted, 
114,  125  n.,  128,  133,  139,  157,  171, 
178,  184,  197,  200,  205,  217,  224, 
249,  262,  275,  279,  283,  28s;  use 
of  tenn  "merit"  by,  279  n. 

Royce,  Josiah,  quoted,  62,  254. 

Russia,  ages  of  reformers  and  of  non- 
reformers  in,  267,  268. 


Sales  managers,  physique  of,  25,  27, 
28. 

Salesmanship,  lectures  on,  229. 

Salesmen,  alertness  of,  to  the  psycho- 
logical moment,  57;  use  of  emula- 
tion policy  with,  152  n.,  154,  158; 
application  of  art  in  supplying  in- 
centives for,  166;  idealism  as  a 
means  of  control,  224;  methods  of 
instruction,  228-232. 

School  maintained  by  New  York 
Edison  Company,   231. 

School  superintendents,  physique  of, 
25,  27,  28;  physique  as  compared 
with  principals  in  small  towns,  32. 

Score  cards,  industry,  81. 

Scott,  Influencing  Men  in  Business, 
quoted,  291  n. 

Self-alignment,  a  factor  conditioning 
the  eflficiency  of  idealism,  225. 

Self-assertion,  power  gained  through 
exercise  of  instinct  of,  51-52. 

Self-feeling,  dependence  of  authority 
upon  different  degrees  of,  in  leader 
and  in  follower,  188-191. 

Self-realization,  interest  secured  by 
whatever  seems  to  afford,  250. 

Self-respect,  a  factor  in  suggestion 
power,  137. 

Senators,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 

Set  task,  value  of  the,  51. 

Shaw,  George  Bernard,  on  basis  of 
authority,  191. 

Sherwin-Williams  Company,  policy  of, 
with  salesmen,  152  n.,  158  n.,  166. 


Sidis,  Boris,  quoted,  53  n.,  140  n., 
142  n.,  146. 

Simonds,  "Social  Assijtnilation,"  cited, 
302. 

Singing,  stimulating  power  of,  164. 

Size,  relation  of  success  to,  31-32. 

Social  activities  of  executives  and  of 
intellectuals,    297-299. 

Social  approval,  as  a  factor  in  a 
stimulating  social  system,  39-40. 

Socialism,  effect  on  a  stimulating  en- 
vironment,  41. 

Socialist  organizers,  physique  of,  25, 
27,  28. 

Socialization  of  human  natvure,  con- 
trol made  possible  by,  101-102; 
a  source  of  personality,  111-112. 

"Soldiering"  by  workers,  i,  96,  208- 
209. 

Specialization,  in  labor,  74-75;  un- 
favorable to  adaptation,  298. 

Speed,  influence  of,  in  modem  civiliza- 
tion, on  need  for  executive  ability, 

3-4- 

Speed  element  in  innovations,  effect 
of,  on  degree  of  opposition,  262-263. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  on  ceremonial  ob- 
servance in  governments,  170; 
conservation  of  nervous  energy  by, 
296. 

Standardization,  progress  in,  233-235. 

Stimulating  environment,  influence 
of,  on  energizing  rate,  37-41- 

Stimulation,  of  executives  by  organiza- 
tions, 76-77  ;  of  his  group  by  execu- 
tive, 95  ff. ;   use  of  art  for,  163-171, 

Subjection,  as  a  typical  appeal  of 
personality,  113-114. 

Subordination,  of  material  by  execu- 
tives, 86-87 ;  use  of,  by  the  leader, 
102-103,  113-114. 

Success,  relation  between  physical 
size  and,  31-32 ;  prestige  in  achieve- 
ment of,  124-125. 

Suggestibility  of  subjects,  factors 
conditioning,  138-140. 

Suggestion,  force  of,  135  ff.;  factors 
conditioning    power    of,     136-142; 


348 


INDEX 


means  for  increasing  effectiveness  of, 
143  ff. ;  use  of  direct  and  of  indirect 
methods,  143-144;  values  vary 
according  to  degree  of  positiveness, 
144-146;  cumulative  results  ren- 
dered possible  by  the  infectiousness 
of,  146-148. 

Sumner,  Andrew  Jackson,  cited,  177. 

Superintendents  of  street  cleaning, 
physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 

Superiority,  tendency  of,  to  dominate, 
310-311. 

Surplus,  the  prime  essential  for  adapta- 
tion, 295-297. 

Sympathy,  securing  of  ascendancy 
through,  117-118. 

Systematic  production  of  new  ideas, 
60. 


Taine,  Ancient  Rigime,  quoted,  162, 
172,  192. 

Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  cited,  131, 
133,  27s,  279,  306. 

Taylor,  Frederick  W.,  eflficiency  experi- 
ments of,  234. 

Teaching,  effectiveness  in,  236-238. 

Temperament,  impulsive,  character- 
istic of  successful  executives,  49; 
as  a  factor  in  suggestibility,  139. 

Tentative  attitude,  3;  a  result  of 
instruction,  240. 

Tests,  psychological,  of  employees,  82. 

Thomdyke,  rules  for  work,  53  n. 

Thurm,  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana, 
quoted,  189  n. 

Titles,  prestige  in,  123. 

Tolman,  Social  Engineering,  cited,  229. 

Trade-unions,  English,  efforts  of,  to 
combat  tendency  to  individual 
acquisition  of  authority,  38  n. 

Transition  periods,  development  of 
the  executive  in,  12-13;  oppor- 
tunity for  the  guiding  hand  in, 
248-249. 

Transmissibility  of  bodily  and  mental 
attitudes,    52-53.    i33-i34- 

Triplett,  article  by,  cited,  151. 


Trips,  education  of  employees  by, 
230. 

Truth,  only  real  antidote  to  error,  184; 
methods  of  opposition  to,  184-186. 

Turkey,  ages  of  reformers  and  non- 
reformers  in,  267,  268. 


Union  Pacific  Railroad,  educational 
courses  offered  employees  by,  232. 

University  presidents,  physique  of, 
25,  27,  28;  physique  as  compared 
with  presidents  of  small  colleges, 
32. 

Unusual,  opportunity  offered  the 
leader  by  the,  17-19,  109-110; 
persistence  of  the,  252-253. 


Values,  distortion  of,  a  type  of  illusion, 

180-182. 
Variation    in    innovation,    degree    of 

opposition  conditioned  by  width  of, 

261-272;    the  slighter,  the  quicker 

its  assimilation,  307-309. 
Veblem,   Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class, 

quoted,  284  n. 
Vernon,     Variation    in    Animals    and 

Plants,  cited,  5  n. 
Vocational    persistence   of    executives 

and  of  intellectuals.  Appendix. 
Volume,  power  of  suggestion  increased 

by,  141-142. 


W 


Wage  plan  of  rewards  for  results  pro- 
duced,   208-210. 

Wanamaker,  John,  quoted  on  sharing 
business  burdens,  90. 

Wanamaker's,  women's  league  at,  231. 

War,  certain  merits  in,  157 ;  art  as  a 
stimulus  in,  164. 

Ward,  A.  Montgomery,  quoted  on 
emulation  policy,  154  n.,  155. 

Wardens,  physique  of,  25,  27,  28. 


INDEX 


349 


Wealth,  as  a  factor  in  a  stimulating 
social  system,  37-38;  imitation 
prestige  in  possession  of,  124. 

Webb,  Industrial  Democracy,  quoted, 
38  n. 

Weight  of  executives,  27,  28;  table 
showing  leaders  ranked  according 
to,  27. 

West,  Ancient  History,  quoted,  198  n. 

Will,  effect  of  the  luminous  idea  on  the, 
46  ff . ;  value  of  the  set  task  to  the, 
47 ;  and  the  blocked  retreat,  47-48. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  quoted,  190. 

Wonder,  influence  of  personality 
through,  114-115. 

Work,  power  of,  necessary  to  the 
leader,  16-17;  power  of,  developed 
by  work  itself,  53  n. ;  rules  for,  53  n. 


Workers,  apportioning  rewards  among, 
207-213;  methods  of  instruction, 
228-232. 

Wright,  article  by,  cited,  151. 

Wyclif,  John,  contemporary  opinions 
of,  14,  282. 


Yawning,    transmissibility    of    bodily 

attitudes  shown  by,  133. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  physique  of  secretaries, 

25,  27,  28;  art  in  campaign  methods 

of  "boosters,"  166-167. 
Yoimg   Turks,    average    age    among, 

267. 
Yule,    G.   Udny,  cited  on  frequency 

distribution,  s  n. 


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